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97問 • 1年前

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are sets of interdependent organizations participating in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption. They are the set of pathways a product or service follows after production, culminating in purchase and consumption by the final end user.

Marketing Channels

is the particular set of marketing channels a firm employ, and decisions about it are among the most critical ones management faces.

Marketing channel system

uses the manufacturer’s sales force, trade promotion money, or other means to induce intermediaries to carry, promote, and sell the product to end users.

Push strategy

the manufacturer uses advertising, promotion, and other forms of communication to persuade consumers to demand the product from intermediaries, thus inducing the intermediaries to order

• Pull strategy

occurs when a single firm uses two or more marketing channels to reach customer segments.

Hybrid channels or multichannel marketing

A supply chain view of a firm sees markets as destination points and amounts to a linear view of the flow of ingredients and components through the production process to their ultimate sale to customers.

Value Networks

The company should first think of the target market, however, and then design the supply chain backward from that point.This strategy has been called

demand chain planning

a system of partnerships and alliances that a firm creates to source, augment, and deliver its offerings. includes a firm’s suppliers and its suppliers’ suppliers, and its immediate customers and their end customers. includes valued relationships with others such as university researchers and government approval agencies

value network

the work of moving goods from producers to consumers. It overcomes the time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who need or want them

marketing channel performs

Some of these functions (storage and movement, title, and communications) constitute a ________ of activity from the company to the customer;

forward flow

other functions (ordering and payment) constitute a _______ from customers to the company. Still others (information, negotiation, finance, and risk taking) occur in both directions.

backward flow

Three types of shoppers:

1 . Service/quality customers 2. Price/value customers 3. Affinity customers

who cared most about the variety and performance of products and service,

Service/quality customers

who were most concerned about spending wisely, and

Price/value customers

who primarily sought stores that suited people like themselves or groups they aspired to join

Affinity customers

Channels produce five service outputs:

1. Lot size— 2. Waiting and delivery time— 3. Spatial convenience— 4. Product variety— 5. Service backup—

—The number of units the channel permits a typical customer to purchase on one occasion.

Lot size

—The average time customers wait for receipt of goods. Customers increasingly prefer faster delivery channels.

Waiting and delivery time

—The degree to which the marketing channel makes it easy for customers to purchase the product.

Spatial convenience

—The assortment provided by the marketing channel. Normally, customers prefer a greater assortment because more choices increase the chance of finding what they need, although too many choices can sometimes create a negative effect.

4. Product variety

—Add-on services (credit, delivery, installation, repairs) provided by the channel. The greater the '_______, the greater the work provided by the channel.

dervice backup

Types of Intermediaries Three strategies based on the number of intermediaries

1. Exclusive distribution 2. Selective distribution 3. Intensive distribution

means severely limiting the number of intermediaries. It’s appropriate when the producer wants to maintain control over the service level and outputs offered by the resellers, and it often includes exclusive dealing arrangements

Exclusive distribution

relies on only some of the intermediaries willing to carry a particular product. Whether established or new, the company does not need to worry about having too many outlets; it can gain adequate market coverage with more control and less cost than intensive distribution.

2. Selective distribution

places the goods or services in as many outlets as possible. This strategy serves well for snack foods, soft drinks, newspapers,candies, and gum—products consumers buy frequently or in a variety of locations. This strategy may help in the short term, but if not done properly, it can hurt long-term performance by encouraging retailers to compete aggressively

3. Intensive distribution

Main elements in the “trade-relations mix”

• Price policy • Conditions of sale • Distributors’ territorial • Mutual services and responsibilities

calls for the producer to establish a price list and schedule of discounts and allowances that intermediaries see as equitable and sufficient.

Price policy

refers to payment terms and producer guarantees. Most producers grant cash discounts to distributors for early payment. They might also offer a guarantee against defective merchandise or price declines, creating an incentive to buy larger quantities.

Conditions of sale

rights define the distributors’ territories and the terms under which the producer will enfranchise other distributors. ______ normally expect to receive full credit for all sales in their territory, whether or not they did the selling.

Distributors’ territorial

must be carefully spelled out, especially in franchised and exclusive-agency chacha

Mutual services and responsibilities

. Each channel alternative will produce a different level of sales and costs.

Economic Criteria

. Using a sales agency can pose a control problem. Agents may concentrate on the customers who buy the most, not necessarily those who buy the manufacturer’s goods. They might not master the technical details of the company’s product or handle its promotion materials effectively

Control and Adaptive Criteria

, producers should determine what characteristics distinguish the better intermediaries—number of years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, financial strength, cooperativeness, and service reputation.

selecting chanel member

A company needs to view its intermediaries the same way it views its end users. It should determine their needs and wants and tailor its channel offering to provide them with superior value.

TRAINING AND MOTIVATING CHANNEL MEMBERS

is the ability to alter channel members’ behavior so they take actions they would not have taken otherwise.

Channel power

CHANNEL POWER Manufacturers can draw on the following types of power to elicit cooperation:

• Coercive power • Reward power • Legitimate power

. A manufacturer threatens to withdraw a resource or terminate a relationship if intermediaries fail to cooperate.

• Coercive power

. The manufacturer offers intermediaries an extra benefit for performing specific acts or functions

• Reward power

The manufacturer requests a behavior that is warranted under the contract.

Legitimate power

. The manufacturer has special knowledge the intermediaries value. Once the intermediaries acquire this expertise, however, expert power weakens.

• Expert power

. The manufacturer is so highly respected that intermediaries are proud to be associated with it.

Referent power

consumer response (ECR) practices to organize their relationships in three areas:

1. Demand side 2. Supply side management or collaborative practices 3. Enablers and integrators, or collaborative information

management or collaborative practices to stimulate consumer demand by promoting joint marketing and sales activities,

Demand side

management or collaborative practices to optimize supply (with a focus on joint logistics and supply chain activities), and

supply side management

, or collaborative information technology and process improvement tools to support joint activities

Enablers and integrators

A producer must periodically review and modify its channel design and arrangements. The distribution channel may not work as planned, consumer buying patterns change, the market expands, new competition arises, innovative distribution channels emerge, and the product moves into later stages in the product life cycle

CHANNEL MODIFICATION DECISIONS

consists of an independent producer, wholesaler(s), and retailer(s). Each is a separate business seeking to maximize its own profits, even if this goal reduces profit for the system as a whole. No channel member has complete or substantial control over other members.

conventional marketing channel

by contrast, includes the producer, wholesaler(s), and retailer(s) acting as a unified system. One channel member, the channel captain, owns or franchises the others or has so much power that they all cooperate. “Marketing Insight: Channel Stewards Take Charge” provides some perspective on how channel stewards, a closely related concept, can work.

vertical marketing system (VMS),

is generated when one channel member’s actions prevent another channel from achieving its goal.

Channel conflict

occurs when channel members are brought together to advance the goals of the channel, as opposed to their own potentially incompatible goals.

channel coordination

types of conflict and competition

horizontal channel conflict vertical channel conflict multichannel conflict

occurs between channel members at the same level.

horizontal channel conflict

occurs between different levels of the channel.

• vertical channel conflict

• exists when the manufacturer has established two or more channels that sell to the same market.

multichannel conflict

Causes of Channel Conflict

• Goal incompatibility. • Unclear roles and rights. Differences in perception. • Intermediaries’ dependence

. The manufacturer may want to achieve rapid market penetration through a low-price policy. Dealers, in contrast, may prefer to work with high margins and pursue short-run profitability. •

Goal incompatibility

. HP may sell personal computers to large accounts through its own sales force, but its licensed dealers may also be trying to sell to large accounts. Territory boundaries and credit for sales often produce conflict.

Unclear roles and rights

. The manufacturer may be optimistic about the short-term economic outlook and want dealers to carry higher inventory. Dealers may be pessimistic. In the beverage category, it is not uncommon for disputes to arise between manufacturers and their distributors aboutthe optimal advertising strategy. •

Differences in perception

. The fortunes of exclusive dealers, such as auto dealers, are profoundly affected by the manufacturer’s product and pricing decisions. This situation creates a high potential for conflict.

Intermediaries’ dependence

In some cases, a convincing strategic justification that they serve distinctive segments and do not compete as much as they might think can reduce potential for conflict among channel members.

Strategic Justification

pays existing channels for sales made through new channels.

• Dual Compensation

Channel members can come to an agreement on the fundamental or superordinate goal they are jointly seeking, whether it is survival, market share, high quality, or customer satisfaction.

• Superordinate Goals

A useful step is to exchange persons between two or more channel levels. GM’s executives might agree to work for a short time in some dealerships, and some dealership owners might work in GM’s dealer policy department. Thus participants can grow to appreciate each other’s point of view

• Employee Exchange

When conflict is chronic or acute, the parties may need to resort to stronger means. Diplomacy takes place when each side sends a person or group to meet with its counterpart to resolve the conflict. Mediation relies on a neutral third party skilled inone or more arbitrators and accept their decision.

Diplomacy, Mediation, and Arbitration

If nothing else proves effective, a channel partner may choose to file a lawsui

• Legal Recourse

Similarly, marketers can encourage joint memberships in trade associations.

Joint Memberships

is an effort by one organization to win the support of the leaders of another by including them in advisory councils, boards of directors, and the like. If the organization treats invited leaders seriously and listens to their opinions, can reduce conflict, but the initiator may need to compromise its policies and plans to win outsiders’ support.

• Co-option

uses a Web site to transact or facilitate the sale of products and services online.

E-commerce

Online retailers compete in three key aspects of a transaction: (

1) customer interaction with the Web site, (2) delivery, and (3) ability to address problems when they occur.

There are several kinds of____ : search engines, Internet service providers (ISPs), commerce sites, transaction sites, content sites, and enabler sites.

Pure-Click Companies

sell all types of products and services, notably books,music, toys, insurance, stocks, clothes, financial services, and so on.

Commerce sites

) Web sites have attracted much attention in the media, even more activity is being conducted on business-tobusiness (B2B) sites, which are changing the supplier–customer relationship in profound ways.

business-to-consumer (B2C

b2b sites make markets more efficient, giving buyers easy access to a great deal of information from

1) supplier Web sites; (2) infomediaries, third parties that add value by aggregating information about alternatives; (3) market makers, third parties that link buyers and sellers; and (4) customer communities, where buyers can swap stories about suppliers’ products and services.

brick-and-mortar companies may have initially debated whether to add an online e-commerce channel for fear of channel conflict with their offline retailers, agents, or their own stores, most eventually added the Internet as a distribution channel after seeing how much business was generated online

brick-and-click companies

includes all the activities in selling goods or services directly to final consumers for personal, nonbusiness use.

Retailing

is any business enterprise whose sales volume comes primarily from retailing. Any organization selling to final consumers—whether it is a manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer—is doing retailing. It doesn’t matter how the goods or services are sold (in person, by mail, telephone, vending machine, or on the Internet) or where (in a store, on the street, or in the consumer’s home)

retailer or retail store

Perhaps the best-known type of store retailer is the department store. Different formats of store retailers will have different competitive and price dynamics. Discount stores, for example, compete much more intensely with each other than other formats.Retailers also meet widely different consumer preferences for service levels and specific services.

1. Store retailers

Specifically, they position themselves as offering one of four levels of service:

• Self-service • Self-selection • Limited service • Full service

Although the overwhelming bulk of goods and services—97 percent—is sold through stores, nonstore retailing has been growing much faster than store retailing.

Nonstore retailing

Nonstore retailing falls into four major categories

• Direct selling • Direct marketing • Automatic vending • Buying service

Although many retail stores are independently owned, an increasing number are part of a corporate retailing organization. These organizations achieve economies of scale, greater purchasing power, wider brand recognition, and better-trained employees than independent stores can usually gain alone.

Corporate retailing and franchising

The major types of corporate retailing——are described below:

corporate chain stores, voluntary chains, retailer and consumer cooperatives, franchises, and merchandising conglomerates

(also called a reseller, store, house, or distributor brand) is a brand that retailers and wholesalers develop

private label brand

individual franchisees are a tightly knit group of enterprises whose systematic operations are planned, directed, and controlled by the operation’s innovator, called a

franchisor

includes all the activities in selling goods or services to those who buy for resale or business use. It excludes manufacturers and farmers because they are engaged primarily in production, and it excludes retailers

Wholesaling

Wholesalers are more efficient in performing one or more of the following functions:

• Selling and promoting • Buying and assortment building • Bulk breaking • Warehousing • Transportation • Financing • Risk bearing • Market information • Management services and counseling

includes planning the infrastructure to meet demand, then implementing and controlling the physical flows of materials and final goods from points of origin to points of use, to meet customer requirements at a profit

Market logistics

includes materials management, material flow systems, and physical distribution, aided by information technology (IT).

Integrated logistics systems (ILS),

Most companies today are trying to shorten the order-to-payment cycle—that is, the elapsed time between an order’s receipt, delivery, and payment. This cycle has many steps, including order transmission by the salesperson, order entry and customer credit check, inventory and production scheduling, order and invoice shipment, and receipt of payment. The longer this cycle takes, the lower the customer’s satisfaction and the lower the company’s profits.

Order Processing

store goods for moderate to long periods of time.

• Storage warehouses

receive goods from various company plants and suppliers and move them out as soon as possible.

• Distribution warehouses

• employ advanced materials-handling systems under the control of a central computer and are increasingly becoming the norm.

Automated warehouses

As inventory draws down, management must know at what stock level to place a new order. This stock level is called

the order (or reorder) point.

choices affect product pricing, on-time delivery performance, and the condition of the goods when they arrive, all of which affect customer satisfaction.

Transportation

• consists of putting the goods in boxes or trailers that are easy to transfer between two transportation modes.

Containerization

describes the use of rail and trucks; fishyback, water and trucks; trainship, water and rail; and airtruck, air and trucks.

Piggyback

is an independent organization selling transportation services to others on a contract basis. • A common carrier provides services between predetermined points on a scheduled basis and is available to all shippers at standard rates.

contract carrier

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Jennie Rose Carpo · 24問 · 2年前

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