gender

a persons biological (genetics) status as either male or female. this determined by there chromosomes (XX vs XY) which influence hormonal differences

is a persons psychological status as either masculine or feminine. this includes all the attribudes roles and behaviours that are associated with being male and female stereotypes and cultural expectations

A set of shared beliefs and perceptive ideas and expectations that people in a society or culture should hold based on their gender

They studied the Batista family who had four children that were identified as girls that bass and were raised as such until puberty when they changed into miles. As each of their vaginas were closed over testes that looks like vaginas. The children were affected by a rare genetic disorder, where than male genitals was not external at birth. once the boys found out all of them, abandon their female identity and adjusted quickly suggesting gender identity maybe flexible.

They refer to their child as the infant and only played with gender neutral toys and a TV free home. From five Sasha alternated between girl and boy clothes. Sasha called himself a boy, and this was his sex.

Scan the brains of 949 young man and women to map connections of different parts of the brain. Found that women’s brains have a better connection between the left and right side of the brain individual parts. Suggesting female brains are hardwired to cope better with several tasks at once where is males prefer to focus on one single complex task. So this suggests that maybe truth in some sex roll stereotypes supporting biological differences between male and females.

they asked parents to describe their newborns within 24 hours of them being born. Parents of boys describe them as a lot and strong, whereas for girls, soft and delicate suggesting parent stereotype that children in line with a sexual stereotype despite none of the stereotypes being shown.

Is a personality type that is characterised by possessing a high balanced combination of masculine and feminine traits

Bem

She argued that men and women are constrained by sex, roll stereotypes, Ben argued that high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being as androgynous people don’t have to to suppress themselves to fit in with sex roles and I’m more psychologically happy. Also they can handle situations in a more flexible and appropriate way.

So she developed the BSRI scale. Of 60 questions were 20 items were typically mail characteristics. Another 20 was typically female characteristics and finally 20 represented neutral characteristics., through a self report, seven point like scale, participants rated that own personality, which then measured across the two dimensions of androgyny or indifferent and then masculine or feminine

It was piloted with over 100 students and the results broadly corresponded with the participants own description of their gender identity. This suggests that BARI has some degree of validity. A similar test from a smaller sample revealed similar scores when students tested a month later, meaning it has high test reliability so consistency of measuring gender identity.

As it was developed over 40 years ago, and typical behaviours of genders may have changed, so the schedule is outdated and therefore lacks temporal validity. So it is no longer appropriate to use to measure gender identity., Asking people to write themselves on a questionnaire relies on our understanding of their personality and behaviour that they may not have. Gender is a hypothetical construct that is subjective as a person’s interpretation of the meaning on the scale may differ.

Prakash et al 2010 tested 100 married females in India on masculinity/femininity and a range of outcomes measured related to the house of the individual. Both physically depression, anxiety and stress. Participants with both a high masculinity high femininity score had lower depression scores. where is people with high is that a high masculinity or femininity scored higher on depression. This supports androgyny has psychological effects.

Bem placed greater emphasis on androgynous people being more psychologically, healthy as they are able to handle situations better. But this assumption has been challenged. They say people who display a gender proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted as they are more highly valued in western society. Suggesting that bands research may not have taken into account, social and cultural contacts in which it was developed., androgynous people can also be overly competitive which is not good

two twins where born and take to have a circumcision and the doctors tryed a new electrical way on them and Bruce’s penis was burnt off, there was a psychologist that believed not chocolate over right gentle nature, due to socialisation E.G teaching Bantham, anyways, like caring, this could only be done in the mouldable period of two years., Bruce‘s parents decided to give him gender reassignment where he was raised as a girl and how to act as one she seem to be doing good as a girl friend. I was actually very unhappy as a girl and was rebellious and was said to have a masculine nature, she showed severe disturbance. Later on she found out about the procedure and turned back into a male and got married and had stepchildren

testosterone

It controls the development of male sex organs, and secondary sexual characteristics in puberty

Higher levels are linked to higher levels of aggression and so explain males higher aggression levels compared to women

oestrogen

determines female, secondary sexual characteristics, E.G breast development and menstruation

linked to heightened emotionality and irritability during the menstrual cycle, and so explains females greater emotional display than men

Oxytocin

it is released in mass quantities during labour, and after childbirth it, promotes feelings of bonding in both men and women. it is also related to orgasm and faster wound healing.

It facilitates mother and baby bonding. Reduces stress, hormones and cholesterol to dampen the fight or flight response. It’s a fault response insures that females protect their young and form protective alliances with other women. The same doesn’t happen in Megan because testosterone dampens the effect of this hormone, explaining the gender difference.

Chromosomes are made from DNA. genes or shorts sections of DNA that the time in characteristics., There are 46 chromosomes in the human body arranged into 23 pairs. The 23rd party time and biological sex. (XX for females and XY for males), All normal X produced by human ovaries, have an X chromosome. The sperm either carries an X or Y chromosome., if the sperm that fertilises the egg carries an X, chromosome, the baby will be a girl, and if it carries a Y chromosome in the baby will be a boy, without high levels of testosterone, the embryo develops as a female, Therefore, Kromozone is genetic transmissions, explains how individuals acquire their sex, and which hormones are produced, It may also explain some aspects of gender because of the link between chromosomes and genitalia and hormones

Chromosomes are made from DNA. genes or shorts sections of DNA that the time in characteristics., There are 46 chromosomes in the human body arranged into 23 pairs. The 23rd party time and biological sex. (XX for females and XY for males), All normal X produced by human ovaries, have an X chromosome. The sperm either carries an X or Y chromosome., if the sperm that fertilises the egg carries an X, chromosome, the baby will be a girl, and if it carries a Y chromosome in the baby will be a boy, The Y chromosome carries the SRY gene which causes the testes to grow in a XY embryo, these produce male, hormones, including testosterone and causes the embryo, typical male, and testerone causes male genitalia to develop, The testosterone also acts as the brain to all ties organisation to male pattern e.g hypothalamus

Dabbs et al 1995 found in the prison population that offenders with the highest level of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes. This study supports the role of sex hormones in gender related behaviour such as aggression., contradictory, what money said that environmental factors, play more of a role in gender development in the biology side but, David Reimer could be raised as a boy or girl that was raised as a girl, but he strongly identified with male, despite being raised as a girl so This suggests that biological factors play a key role in gender development and is more powerful than the environment as the way he was raised did not stop his innate gender identity

If the biological side of gender has paid such an impact, we would expect more differences between men and females that Slabbekoorn et al 1999 also demonstrated that sex hormones had no consistent effect of gender related behaviour. This research does not support the view that sex hormones determine behaviour., another limitation of the biological perspective on gender is the social learning theory it points out that social context in learning of a gender identity and role suggesting it is not consistent when focusing on biology. The biological approach cannot easily explain cross cultural differences in western genders are becoming more androgynous, but this is less , so where else? This suggests that there is too much of an emphasis on nature in this approach to understanding, sex and gender.

any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation. they tend to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms

klinefelter’s, turner’s

it occurs in males where they have an extra X chromosome (XXY pattern)

have reduced testosterone, body hair compared to typical men. may have breast growth, softening and rounding of the body, tend to have long limbs and are taller than average and are often infertile

Poor development of language skills and reading have cognitive difficulties such as dyslexia and passive behaviour. May also have problems with executive functions such as memory and problem solving

It occurs in females where they are missing a X chromosome (XO pattern)

they don’t have a menstrual cycle, ovaries, often fail to develop, so are in the title, develop breasts at puberty, do you have a broad chest and a web neck hips are not bigger than the waist look physically immature, don’t look as if they have gone through puberty.

higher than average reading ability, it’s associated with higher levels of verbal lang, bad spatial visual memory and mathematical skills, tend to be socially immature

Studies of people with these atypical sex, chromosome patterns are useful as they contribute to our understanding of the nature nurture debate. By having the comparisons of these individuals with typical individuals, it becomes possible to see physiological and behavioural differences between the two . it may be logically inside that these differences have a biological basis, and a direct result of a typical chromosome structure. This would suggest that the innate nature influence have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour., With our continued search, insert a typical sex chromosomes, it’s likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnosis of turners and klinefelter’s and also more positive outcomes in the future. Research suggests those who have been identified with. klinefelter’s syndrome and treated from a young age, had significant benefits compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood. This suggests that increased awareness of these conditions may have practical application. Itachi testosterone replacement therapy can help people with klinefelter’s increase the hormone levels towards a normal rate to produce bigger muscles, deeper voice and stimulate facial and body hair growth

there may be issues in leading to conclusions that innate nature influences, have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour. The relationship between chromosome abnormalities associated with klinefelter’s and turner’s and difference in behaviour scene in these individuals is not casual. That may be environmental and social influences that are more responsible for behavioural differences seen in these individuals. e.g, the social immaturity associated with Turners syndrome may arise from the fact that they were treated immaturely by people around them. This suggests that it is wrong to assume that observable psychological and behavioural differences are due to the nature., caution should always be exercised when drawing conclusions from such an unusual and an representative sample of people. The main issue is the lack of generalisability from atypical individuals to wider population. Individuals who look different are unlikely to be treated in the same ways that he is. Generalisability is five a limited by the fact that only about one in third of people with klinefelter’s no they have here so this sample is only based on people who know they have it. This makes it difficult to assess the relative contribution of nature and nurture in terms of behavioural and psychological differences between typical and atypical individuals.

Cognitive explanation explains behaviour in terms of thinking cognitive development explanation to suggest the children’s mental concept or understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age

He travels on the idea that the way we think (complex and abstract thinking) changes and becomes more sophisticated as we get older because of physical changes in the brain. The consequences of this is that gender development occurs in three stages. Children naturally progress through the stages as the way of thinking matures. This happens gradually rather than suddenly, so this stage is ages or only approximate

stage one gender identity, stage two gender stability, stage three gender constancy

Children are able to correctly identify themselves as a boy or a girl. Most children not able to identify other people as male or female and can select the correct picture when asked which of these like you. that understanding of gender appears to be limited to labelling. Eat Archie a boy at this stage. May say when I grow up I want to be a mummy

children realise that they will stay the same gender, however, they still find it challenging to apply this logic to others as they are egocentric. for example, if they see a male with long hair, they won’t be able to identify that he is still a male.

Children now recognise that gender remains consistent and constant across time and situations. I can apply this to others as well as themselves. They may be confused by someone with external appearances of a different sex E.G a man in a dress but will recognise they are still a man.

Slaby and Frey 1975 - questioned 55 children from the ages of 2 to 5 to assess the level of gender understanding. They ask questions like why are you a little boy or a little girl when you were a baby and if you paid footballer would you be a boy or a girl. Also ask them to point to which one was them out of a picture of a boy and a girl. also had a split screen of a female and a male performing the same task. The answers showed children that did not recognise that gender was stable over time until they were three or four years old as predicted by Kohlberg’s. The oldest children scored highly on gender constantly and spent longer looking at the model who was the same sex Islam, whereas younger children spent roughly the same amount of time watching both sexes., Slaby and Rrey - found that gender constancy appeared at a younger age than Kohlberg suggested. This may be because of the time since he formed history children’s lives had become more different. For example, they are exposed to gender information through the media and may have developed their understanding and that younger age. This doesn’t directly challenged the theory as it supports the idea that thinking about gender does develop and change over time. However, it does suggest adjustments are necessary to the actual age is that this is sad to happen

Bussey and Bandura 1992 - found the children as young, as for reported, feeling good about playing with gender, appropriate toys and bad for doing the opposite. this contradicts what Kolberg, which project has children begin to demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour before gender constancy is achieved and so have acquired information about gender roles before Kohlberg suggested. This may mean that the gender schema theory is more accurate as children begin to absorb gender appropriate information, as soon as they identify themselves in either male or female., Kohlberg’s theory was developed using interviews of children who were in some cases as young as two or three. All the questions were tailored towards the particular age. The questions may not have acknowledged that very young children. Lack vocabulary required to express that understanding. Meaning these children may have relatively complex ideas about gender, but don’t have the verbal ability to articulate them. So the research may not represent their true understanding, and may result in the research not being entirely valid. As the theory was developed by such research is difficult to support the validity of the theory.

this is a cognitive development explanation of gender development that was proposed by Martin and Halverson. gender schema theory argues that gender relative information is acquired before gender consistency is achieved. Children don’t need to understand their gender is fixed before behaving in gender appropriate ways.

scheme is used by cognitive systems to organise knowledge on a topic. agenda scheme is an organised, set of beliefs and expectations related to Gender that helps us to organise and interpret information in the brain using a mental construction that develops through experiences. they guide us understand our own gender and gender appropriate behaviour

2-3 years

Young children build up schemes from stereotypes from interactions within the media and users around them.

In group schemes are schemas about a group a person identifies with

Outgroup schemes are the opposite group

Children better understand schemes relating to their own gender as they pay attention to what is relevant to their gender identity and not the other sex (out group). if the child has a better in group identity, it will result in a higher self-esteem

Around eight years old, they form elaborate schemes for both genders

Martin and Halverson- children, aged six remember images of gender consistent behaviour one week after. Change sex of person doing inconsistent behaviour equal to fit gender schema. this, supportive evidence shows validity for the gender schema theory as it shows children age 6. Only have gender schema behaviours based on stereotypes., Martin and Little- children under four show strong sex, typed behaviour, despite no gender consistency. This challenges Coburg’s theory, giving the gender, schema theory, validity and questioning the validity of Kohlberg’s theory., Account for the rid rigidity of gender beliefs. Children discount anything that challenges, strong gender, schemas, E.G males working as a nurse. This shows strong in group bias in processing information, paying attention to what relevant to them. This explains how young children think about gender