how common a characteristic is compared to the rest of the population. The normal distribution indicates the statistical Norm on either end means they are abnormal

Does not consider disability. A very high IQ is desirable and will not require treatment and a diagnosis. Therefore cannot be used as a sole tool for diagnosing abnormalities as it can’t distinguish what needs treatment., not everyone benefits from the label. It does not consider functionality. A person with I have very low IQ can still work and be happy. They do not need a diagnosis. Could perceive themselves negatively and receive negativity from others. Cannot be used as a sole tool for diagnosis., has practical applications in diagnosis. psychiatrist will compare symptoms severity with others in the population. E.G IDD is based on comparing IQ is to average. Useful part of a clinical assessment.

standards and acceptable behaviour agreed upon a group/society. Varies across cultures and generations is relative . E.g., the diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder is diagnosed when there is a absence of prosocial behaviour.

though it has been successful in helping diagnose antisocial, personality disorder (APD), it does not consider if anti-normal behaviour is causing distress to self/others. A better definition is FTFA approach. No reason to diagnose if it is not causing harm., culturally relative and time bound. Difficulty for one culture group, living with another, as this definition would instantly perceive them as abnormal. Does not consider diagnosis will vary, Has historically lead to HR abuse. what is considered the normal has subjected minorities. E.g. women with nymphomania and black slaves, as said to have drapetomania. Radical psychologists state we still use norms to oppress people through diagnosis.

is a persons disorder, preventing them from coping with the demands of every day life

Can a person cope with distress, Can they conform to impersonal rules, Are they a harm to themselves or others

Considers participants perspective of distress. Acknowledges subjective experiences. Captures the experiences of the participants meaning distress is difficult, but still an important factor to consider in measuring abnormality., every day life could just be another type of social norm. E.g. new age travellers have no home/extreme sports athletes considered maladaptive/spiritualists. Perceiving such as failures risks discrimination against minority groups., Diagnosis is not objective. Global assessment of functioning scale used, but a psychiatrist makes the final decision. Another person judging if you are distressed.

Jahoda

He outlined characteristics of good mental health, and if they are not met, then you are abnormal

self actualisation, being independent, rational perceive the world/selves accurately, environmental mastery, good self esteem , a lack of guilt

A good tool for thinking about mental health, as it is a very comprehensive definition. Includes reasons why people would seek help., culturally restrictive and bound. self actualisation and independence applies to individualists notions of success, but could be considered selfish in collectivists cultures that stress group effort, deviation from ideal mental health sets up and unrealistically high standard for good mental health. Most people can’t achieve them all at once or only temporarily. Good for making people seek help, but bad for diagnosis as you can’t see who needs treatment against their will, as most people with will be defined as abnormal

An excessive fear of an object to place or situation. The fear is out of proportion to the real danger all the phobic stimulus

panic , avoidance , endurance

Running away, screaming, freezing and temper tantrum

make effort to avoid the phobic stimulus

Cannot avoid it high levels of anxiety

anxiety

An inability to relax/high arousal and fear

selective attention to the phobic stimulus, Cognitive distortions, Irrational beliefs

they cannot focus on anything else due to anxiety

view the phobic stimulus very negatively

Thoughts are not true

two process model

behaviours acquired through classical conditioning/maintained through operant conditioning

Watson and Rayner’s little Albert study

it shows how saviours are acquired through classical conditioning

The natural stimulus was the rat , the unconditioned stimulus was the loud noise , The unconditioned response was fear

Condition stimulus was the rat, Conditioned response was fear

negative reinforcement encourages the safety seeking/avoidant behaviour. So the Soviet behaviour is maintained through operant conditioning.

The two process model provided more detailed and had great explanatory power for the time it was introduced (1960s). Explains how phobias can be maintained and stressing the need for exposure during the treatment to stop avoidance. This gives it practical application., Doesn’t consider biology. Seligman said we are biologically prepared to fear things which have been a threat to survival E.G snakes. people can have bad experiences with cats, but few develop a phobia meaning it wasn’t present in the past, Avoidance may not be to just reduce anxiety/fear. An agoraphobic can leave home with other person. Could be the positive reinforcement of safety seeking instead. Cognitive therapy may be more appropriate.

persistent sadness and a lack of interest or pleasure in previously rewarding or enjoyable activities.

disturbance to sleeping/eating behaviour- hyper/insomnia, Aggression/self harm, Activity levels disruption- lethargic or psychomotor agitation

very low mood , low self esteem , anger

absolutist thinking , selective dwelling to negative , poor concentration

Beck and cognitive theory of depression , Ellis and ABC model

the terms of faulty thought processes and negative self schemas.

Beck proposed the negative triad to break down the process to how person can develop depression

negative view on the world, negative view on the future , negative view on self

activating event, beliefs, consequences

that irrational thoughts could be triggered by an activating event such as failing a test.

This would then trigger a negative belief to occur such as believing you must always succeed in everything

Finally the last process is knows as consequence the response to having a negative belief can trigger depression

Strong supporting evidence for Beck’s idea of FIP and cognitive vulnerability. Terry et al. 65, pregnant women for the CV before/after birth. Post natal depression, more likely in women which had CV., Both have application to cognitive behavioural therapy. Beck identifies negative triad. Ellis use of challenging irrational beliefs. Leads to successful therapy, Neither can explain all types of depression, e.g. hallucinations present in cotard’s syndrome. Only explains reactive depression to an event for some there is no clear.

Identified the three parts of the negative triad. Challenge irrational beliefs. Homework for patience so patient as a scientist is used to provide evidence to challenge the participants irrational thoughts. Use of behavioural activation to make participants realise they can do things which are enjoyable.

ABC-DE (D- dispute E- effect). a logical or empirical argument occurs to challenge irrational beliefs. Identifying examples of utopianism. Homework patients are scientists is used to provide evidence to change the participants irrational thoughts. The use of behavioural activation to make participants realise they can do things which are enjoyable.

Cognitive behavioural therapy may not be unique/important in anyway. Like that psychotherapies success is down to patient therapy repport. Lubrosky’s comparative analysis found very little difference. More about participants having someone to talk to rather than using cognitive strategies., And overemphasis on the present/cognition. Participants who want to find out about their past will benefit more from psychoanalysis. Some peoples depression is from external factors. E.g. domestic abuse/poverty. Circumstances must change that cognitions ain’t faulty or a rational., Cognitive behavioural therapy is a good choice for the NHS. Study by March (depressed, adolescence) antidepressants, only (81% improvement) cognitive behavioural therapy only (81%) antidepressants plus cognitive behavioural therapy (86% improvement) Just as useful because combination is best

Compulsions (repetitive/reduce anxiety/external), Avoidance

Anxiety , Disgust, Depression

Obsessive thoughts, Cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions, Insight into the excuses of the anxiety

Genetic explanation, Neural explanation

Candidate genes involved in serotonin development, OCD is polygenic (Taylor found 230 genes involved-controlling S and D) e.g. 5HT1-D Beta, OCD is aeriologically heterogeneous

Lewis found 37% of his OCD patients had apparent with OCD and 21% with siblings

Abnormal decision-making system (lateral frontal lobe), Processes, unpleasant emotions (left parahippocampal gyrus)

Supporting evidence for the genetic basis of OCD. Nestadt et al 68% of MC. Twins shared OCD/31% of DC twins plus too many to trace. Taylor found 230 genes involved., Must consider environmental factors also. Cromer-half of participants had trauma. most severe OCD in those with multiple traumatic experiences. Not entirely genetic origin., Support for neural explanations. Antidepressants work through targeting serotonin system. Symptoms similar to Parkinson’s, which is biologically in origin.

SSRIs like Fluoxetine prevent breakdown of serotonin at synapse stop. stop it being reabsorbed by pre SN keeps the concentration of the neurotransmitters at the synapse high. This can be prescribed tricyclics - that has severe side-effects and SSRI’s also increases noradrenaline concentration

Drugs, effectivity in tackling symptoms. Soomro compared exp with control (placebo drug) 17 studies 70% decreased in symptoms 30% benefited from alt drugs A combination with cognitive behavioural therapy is best Also, non disruptive , drugs have side-effects. NHS = 1/10 problems with arousal weight and tremors. 1/100 have heart arrhythmia and high blood pressure Leads to high refusal and attrition rates, The effectiveness of drugs may be exaggerated. The research is often sponsored by drug companies themselves. An emphasis on any success