This method involves letting roots grow on a part of the stem that's still attached to the parent plant. Once the roots have grown, this part is cut off from the parent plant and allowed to grow independently.

Layering

Types of layering

Simple layering, Compound layering, Trench layering, Mound layering, Air layering

The method of joining parts of two plants in a manner that they form a unit and function as one plant.

Grafting

The process of inserting a single mature scion bud into the stem (rootstock) in a way that results into a union and continues to grow as a new plant.

Budding

Identify the methods of extracting secondary metabolites: 1. Soaking plant materials in a solvent to extract compounds. 2. Boiling plant materials to extract active substances. 3. Heating plant materials in a solvent under reflux to extract compounds. 4. Passing a solvent through plant materials to extract active ingredients. 5. Continuously washing plant materials with a solvent to extract compounds. NOTE: Give your answers according to the sequence above.

Maceration, Decoction, Reflux extraction, Percolation, Soxhlet extraction

What are the stages of aerobic respiration?

Glycolysis, Link reaction, Krebs cycle, Electron transport chain

Identify what type of bioreactor is being described: 1. A bioreactor that uses mechanical agitation to mix the contents and promote efficient mass transfer and reaction. 2. A bioreactor in which gas is introduced from the bottom, creating bubbles that rise through a liquid medium, providing a large surface area for mass transfer and mixing. 3. A bioreactor that uses the circulation of gas and liquid phases to create mixing and mass transfer, typically through the use of a draft tube. 4. Bioreactors that utilize orbital shaking to provide mixing and aeration, commonly used for small-scale cultures and microbial fermentation. 5. A bioreactor that uses a flexible bag system and wave-like motion to generate mixing and aeration, often used for large-scale cell culture applications. 6. Bioreactors that deliver nutrients to cultures in the form of mist or sprinkles, allowing for controlled and targeted nutrient delivery. 7. A bioreactor system where plant tissues or organs are periodically immersed in a liquid medium, providing nutrients and promoting growth and development. NOTE: Give your answers according to the sequence above.

Stirred tank reactor, Bubble column reactor, Airlift reactor, Orbitally shaken bioreactors, Wave-mixed bag bioreactor, Nutrient mist and nutrient sprinkle reactors, Temporary immersion system

How do we evaluate experimental results in plant tissue culture?

Give the five basic steps in cryopreservation.

Give three advantages of cryopreservation.

Name the plant growth hormones being described. 1. Promote cell elongation, root development, and apical dominance. They are involved in phototropism and gravitropism, regulating plant responses to light and gravity. 2. Stimulate stem elongation, seed germination, and flowering. They also play a role in fruit development and breaking seed dormancy. 3. Promote cell division and differentiation. They regulate shoot and root development, delay senescence, and stimulate the growth of lateral buds. 4. Involved in stress responses and regulates seed dormancy and stomatal closure. It promotes seed maturation and inhibits growth during unfavorable conditions. 5. A gaseous hormone that regulates fruit ripening, senescence, and abscission. It also influences root growth and gravitropism. NOTE: State your answers according to the sequence above.

Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid, Ethylene

Concerns of GM crops production: 1. GM crops may lead to the decline of crop biodiversity, invasive species, the development of herbicide-resistant weeds, and negative effects on non-target organisms. 2. There are concerns about the potential development of diseases, immune reactions, allergies, and the transfer of antibiotic-resistant genes from GM crops to humans. 3. The control and ownership of GM crops by large biotech companies, the use of terminator seeds, and limited access to GM crops for research and innovation raise ethical concerns. What are the proposed solution for these problems?

The loss of electrons from a substance or the gain of oxygen

Oxidation

The gain of electrons to a substance or the loss of oxygen.

Reduction

Write the photosynthesis equation. Put a dot if you know the answer.

Pores in the plant's cuticle where the exchanye of gasses occurs.

Stomata

The main source of calories and essential fatty acids for men and animals.

Fat

The substrates for the Fatty Acid Synthase.

acetyl-CoA, malonyl-CoA

The major product of fatty acid synthesis.

Palmitic acid

It is the main molecule for the metabolism of secondary metabolites.

Malonyl-CoA

The three chemically basic groups of secondary metabolites.

Terpenoids, Phenolics, Alkaloids

The pathway for the biosynthesis of phenolic compounds in bacteria and fungi.

Malonate pathway

The basic process for biosynthesis of phenolic compounds in higher vascular plants.

Shikimate pathway

The pathway that produces terpenoid compounds in cytosol and plastid cell compartments.

Methylerythritol-phosphate pathway

The pathway that is the core of the metabolic pathway for multiple celular metabolisms

Mevalonic-acid pathway

How does the ATP generate energy?

Discuss briefly the synthesis of ATP (Chemiosmosis).

What are the two groups of Fatty Acid Synthase? Briefly define each. Which group do plants belong to? How so?

Plants' acyl carrier protein (ACP) is used as the carrier for the intermediates for fatty acid synthase. Why is Acyl used as the carrier?

The transfer of malonyl moiety from CoA to ACP is catalyzed by the malonyl CoA:ACP transacylase. Discuss how the malonyl is transferred.

How does the KASII entyme contribute to the elongation of palmitoyl ACP to stearoyl-ACP?

How does the KASII enzyme contribute to the elongation of palmitoyl ACP to stearoyl-ACP?

Aerobic respiration is a metabolic process by which organic molecules, such as glucose, are converted into energy in the form of _______ in the presence of ______.

ATP, Oxygen

______ is the first step of aerobic respiration and occurs in the cytoplasm. It involves splitting a _______ into ______.

Glycolysis, 6-carbon glucose molecule, Two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules

It is the first stage of glycolysis in which a phosphate is added to glucose.

Isomerization

Having lost one of its three phosphates, the ATP becomes ______.

ADP

The newly phosphorylated glucose is now called _____ through isomerization.

Glucose 6-phosphate

Fructose 6-phosphate is further phosphorylated to make ______.

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

During this stage, the 6-carbon fructose 1,6-bisphosphate is split into two 3-carbon molecules known as _______. The stage 3 of glycolysis wherein hydrogen is removed from two triose phosphates.

Triose phosphates

These hydrogen groups are then transferred to a hydrogen-carrier molecule called ______.

NAD+

Both of the triose phosphate molecules, newly oxidized are then converted into another 3-carbon molecule known as ______. Simultaneously, with the reduction of NAD to NADH, one of During the link the phosphates is transferred to ADP from 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate, resulting in ATP.

Pyruvate

These are the enzymes that catalyze phosphorylation reactions ______. During the link reaction, the 3-carbon pyruvate molecules produced during glycolysis undergo a series of different reactions after being actively transported into the mitochondrial matrix.

Kinases

During oxidation, Pyruvate is oxidized into _______. During this reaction, pyruvate loses one take up the spare hydrogens and of its carbon dioxide molecules and two hydrogens. _______ take up the spare hydrogens and reduced NAD is produced (NADH). The new 2-carbon molecule formed from pyruvate is called acetate.

Acetate, NAD+

Acetate then combines with a molecule called ______, which is sometimes shortened to CoA.

Coenzyme A

The Krebs Cycle is the most complex of the four reactions. It features a sequence of redox reactions that occur in the _______.

Mitochondrial matrix

The 2-carbon acetyl coenzyme A, which was produced during the link reaction, combines with a 4-carbon molecule. This produces a _____.

6-carbon molecule

The ______ is the final stage of aerobic respiration.

Electron transport chain

The hydrogen atoms released during the Krebs cycle, along with the electrons they possess, are carried by _______ and _______ into an electron transfer chain.

NAD+, FAD

After the removal of hydrogen atoms from various molecules during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, we have a lot or reduced coenzymes such as reduced NAD and FAD. These reduced coenzymes donate the electrons that these hydrogen atoms are carrying to the first molecule of the transfer chain. These electrons move along the electron transfer chain using ________ molecules. A series of redox reactions occurs, and the energy that these electrons release causes the flow of ______ across the inner mitochondrial membrane and into the intermembrane space. This establishes an electrochemical gradient in which H+ ions are flowing from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Carrier, Protons

The H+ ions build up in the intermembrane space. They then diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix through the enzyme ______, a channel protein with a channel-like hole that protons can fit through.

ATP synthase

As the electrons reach the end of the chain, they combine with these H+ ions and oxygen, forming _______. Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, and ADP and Pi combine in a reaction catalysed by ______ to form ATP.

Water, ATP synthase

Exceptions of experimental systems that are usually maintained under aseptic conditions include experiments that are concerned with problems of phytopathology and symbiosis studies. Why so?

Identify the plant tissue culture technique being described: a. This refers to the growth of unorganized plant cells, often in a solid medium, which forms a callus (a mass of cells). These cells can then be induced to form organs or whole plants. b. These are cultures in which cells are grown in a liquid medium, allowing for the growth of individual cells or small clusters of cells. c. These involve the culture of cells or tissues that have only one set of chromosomes, usually derived from pollen or egg cells. This can be useful for genetic studies or breeding. d. Protoplasts are plant cells that have had their cell wall removed. These cells can be used for fusion experiments or for genetic transformation. e. These are large-scale cultures, often of microbial cells, grown in a bioreactor or fermenter for the production of useful products. f. In these cultures, cells are immobilized in a gel or matrix, which can allow for continuous production of a product and easy separation of the cells from the product.

Callus cultures, Cell suspensions, Haploid techniques, Protoplast cultures, Fermenter cultures, Immobilized cell cultures

Briefly define the following cultures: a. Callus cultures b. Cell Suspensions d. Haploid Techniques c. Protoplast Cultures e. Fermenter Cultures f. Immobilized Cell Cultures

Factors that affect Secondary Metabolite production. Stress: UV-B irradiation SM produced: FLAVONOIDS Negative and positive effects: Uses/Application of that SM:

Factors that affect Secondary Metabolite production: Stress: Low Temperature SM produced: ANTHOCYANIN Negative and positive effects: Uses/Application of that SM:

Factors that affect Secondary Metabolite production: Stress: Biotic stress SM produced: Terpenes Negative and positive effects: Uses/Application of that SM:

Factors that affect Secondary Metabolite production: Stress: Herbivores SM produced: JASMONIC ACID Negative and positive effects: Uses/Application of that SM: