social psychology chap 2
問題一覧
1
It occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us are affected by that labeling
labeling bias
2
It happens when we adopt others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept.
self-labeling
3
Refers to identifying and
utilizing social cues to make judgments about social roles, rules, relationships, context, or the characteristics (e.g., trustworthiness) of others.
social perception
4
the focus is on the effects of emotional states, motives and values on the ease of difficulty with which objects are perceived and judged. Social meanings are often attached to stimulus objects.
object perception
5
the focus is on how we come to know about other people’s intentions, attitudes, ideas, emotions and behaviour so that we will be able to describe them, understand them, explain their behaviour and form or change our impressions, opinions and feelings about them.
person perception
6
occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us are affected by that labeling
labeling bias
7
happens when we adopt others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept.
self-labeling
8
individuals turn prejudice directed toward them by others onto themselves. I
internalized prejudice
9
may occur, which happens when we adopt others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept.
self labeling
10
occurs when we learn about our abilities and skills, about the appropriateness and validity of our opinions, and about our relative social status by comparing our own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those of others.
social comparison
11
is the way a person views him/herself. It is the continuous process of determining personal growth and progress, which can be raised or lowered by the behaviour of a close other (a person that is psychologically close).
self evaluation
12
refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or shape how others (called the audience) view them. It involves expressing oneself and behaving in ways that create a desired impression.
self presentation
13
refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or shape how others (called the audience) view them. It involves expressing oneself and behaving in ways that create a desired impression.
impression management
14
which can be direct claims of a particular image, such as when a person claims to be altruistic.
verbalizations
15
- people self-present nonverbally in their physical appearance, body language, and other behaviour. Smiling, eye contact, and nods of agreement can convey a wealth of information.
non verbal presentation
16
people self-present through the props they surround themselves with and through their associations.
presentation with props
17
People judge others based on their associations. For example, being in the company of politicians or movie stars conveys an image of importance, and not surprisingly, many people display photographs of themselves with famous people.
association
18
The Filipino concept of self reflects a
collective perspective
19
as Filipinos tend to emphasize values and traits that promote
interpersonal cooperation, reciprocity and social acceptance
20
comprises the set of ideas, images, beliefs or schemas a person has about the self (Markus and Wurf, 1987).
self concept
21
- the perceiver regards a momentary
characteristic of the person as if it were an enduring attribute.
temporal extension
22
to the stimulus person he resembles.
assigning some of the traits of a pamiliar person
23
the stimulus person according to certain identifying characteristics. A person is then assigned all the attributes which are considered to belong to that class of persons.
caregorization/ classification
24
analogy is a linguistic comparison of two objects that emphasizes the similarities between those two objects which is often used as a means of describing a new object or concept by comparing it to something that is more familiar.
inference by analogy
25
- a person leaps from a physical characteristic to a direct inference about some personality attribute. The inference is made possible by the direct applicability to the personality attribute of the meanings attached to the physical characteristics
methqphorical generalization
26
a person bases a conclusion about personality on the functioning of some physical attribute.
finctional inference
27
refers to the
process by which one integrates and organizes various sources of information and inferences about another into a consistent meaningful whole or an overall judgment.
impression formation
28
the stimulus person says can give a lot of information about him.
verbal curs
29
can be used by the perceiver to assess the other.
non verbal cues
30
is one of the first things that we notice about a person for the first time we meet them. However, only certain aspects of appearance have been shown to influence an impression markedly.
physical appearance
31
these play an important role in communication and certain emotional expressions are innate. Emotions such as happiness, surprise, anger, sadness, fear and disgust can be quickly identified cross-culturally.
facial expressions
32
variations in speech other than the actual words or syntax, or paralanguage, carry a great deal of meaning. Pitch of the voice, loudness, rhythm, inflections and hesitations also convey information.
paralamguage
33
this is an especially interesting form of nonverbal communication. The meaning of eye contact depends on the context; but in almost all social situations, eye contact communicate information. Eye contact regulates conversations.
eye contact
34
the meaning of gestures depend on the context, the person doing the action, the culture, and many other factors. Gestures vary from straightforward, direct gestures to very subtle ones.
gestutr
35
This is the main dimension in person perception. It is considered the most important and the most powerful aspect of first impressions. In this context, people think primarily in terms of liking or disliking the person perceived. Our immediate impression may be composed of other dimensions, but they tend mainly to be parts of an overall warm, lukewarm, cool or cold responses
evaluation
36
this refers to the extent to which the information or characteristics and traits that are perceived in the other people are in agreement or in harmony with one another or with our overall impression.
consistency
37
we assume that a person have favourable traits if we already have an earlier positive impression on him or her. It is probable that we will not attribute unfavourable traits to him/ her even if there is contradictory information about that person. The perceiver distorts or rearrange the information to minimize or eliminate the inconsistency.
evaluative consistency
38
exists when we infer an additional trait that is synonymous with the known trait and tend not to infer an opposite trait. For example, we are more likely to assume a generous person is extravagant than he is stingy.
descriptive consistet
39
In this model, the perceiver had previously evaluated positively some known characteristics or traits of the stimulus person. Upon obtaining new positive information about the same person, the perceiver simply combines the old and new information.
addictive model
40
In this process, all available information about the stimulus person are regarded as equally important in the impression formation. Averaging tends to equalize the weight given to all perceived information and traits. Moderately positive information will lower the overall impression on the perceived person.
qveraging model
41
Solomon Asch’s research (1940) indicates that not all traits are created equal, and therefore a simple averaging model will sometimes not work for the final overall impression. He believed that certain traits- which he referred as central traits- tend to be dominant, exerting a disproportionate influence on people’s overall impressions and causing them to assume the presence of other traits.
centraltraits effect
42
This model by Norman Anderson (1968, 1981) attempts to reconcile the averaging model and the central traits effect. According to this model, just as people assign certain scale values to traits, they also assign specific weights to traits which determines their importance to the overall impression.
weighted averageing model
43
This involves having a general impression of someone as favourable/ good or unfavourable/ bad and this affects our perception of many of his/ her other more specific traits. In a “positive halo effect”, one who is labelled as good is then attributed with all other good qualities. On the contrary, “negative halo effect or forked-tail effect” is that where one who is labelled as bad is seen as having all bad qualities.
halo effect
44
This is the tendency of people to assume that others are similar to them especially when they are known to be in similar demographic features such as age, race, and socioeconomic status.
assumed simiralrity
45
This is our general tendency to express positive evaluations of people more often than negative evaluations. This is also called the leniency effect. Ratings of stimulus persons in laboratory studies and even public opinion polls show that political leaders are consistently rated as more pleasant in the absence of specific information about them.
positivity bias
46
- a sweet-lemon philosophy or reaction that is well despite obvious evidence to the contrary. This suggests that people feel better if they are surrounded by good things, pleasant experiences, nice people, good weather, etc. and therefore are motivated to see the world and others through “rose- colored glasses”.
polyana principle
47
This is the tendency of people to give more weight to unfavourable attributes or negative attributes or negative traits than favourable traits in forming impression of another person. This tendency to direct attention to negatively evaluated stimuli, like the tendency to notice fearful and angry faces in a crowd, is believed to have survival value for human beings.
nwgative bias
48
when perceiving the characteristics or interests of others, we tend to believe that they are similar to ours.
false sensus bias
49
his is to assure that our thoughts, beliefs and/ or actions are correct as well as to lessen the pressure to change them in the face of conflicting evidence, we assume that others think and behave as we do.
self justification
50
this is the tendency to seek out the company of those whose thoughts, beliefs, values and behaviors are similar to our own. Hence, we tend to overestimate the commonness of our responses.
selective expusote
51
we tend to think that our friends share our characteristics just because we like them. Conversely, we tend to think that we are different from our enemies just because we do not like them.
perfeption of similarity because of liking
52
this is the effect of first impressions which is so strong that it may have implications in relationships. However, in cases where the interaction between the perceiver and stimulus person is extended in time or the quality of relationship has gone beyond the superficial level, opportunity to know the real person is present. Thus the perceiver tends to be more objective.
primacy effect
53
this is the tendency of the perceiver to have an overall evaluation of a person based on the last information/ impression the perceiver had about the stimulus person. One condition where recency effect can occur is when information about a person is presented at long intervals.
recency effect
54
our initial beliefs about other people sometimes persist even when the original basis for those beliefs has been completely disconfirmed
belief perseverance
55
we tend to seek, interpret and remember information in such a way that conforms or fits to our pre-existing though and beliefs. In other words, we see what we expect. When a person’s behaviour is consistent with what we expect during the initial encounter, we tend not to pay much attention to him in succeeding encounters because instead rely on our existing beliefs about him for further assumptions about his behaviour
cognitive confirmity bias
56
this is also known as “self-fulfilling prophecy”. We tend to behave towards others in a manner that would elicit behaviors from them that seem to match or fulfil our expectations or prophecies. Our behaviour reflects more concern about the confirmation of our personal beliefs and expectations, hence there is failure to be truly open to new information.
behavioral confirmatory bias
57
we tend to overestimate the correctness of our beliefs or the accuracy of our judgments than we should. This is more likely when we are unaware of the true determinants of behaviour
overconfidence effect
58
this is observed when we look back (with hindsight) we tend to remember our past judgments as having been more accurate than they really were. There is this “I knew it all along” effect.
hindsight bias
59
is the assigning of generalized and value-laden impressions that people of one group use to characterize those another group.
sereotuping
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1
It occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us are affected by that labeling
labeling bias
2
It happens when we adopt others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept.
self-labeling
3
Refers to identifying and
utilizing social cues to make judgments about social roles, rules, relationships, context, or the characteristics (e.g., trustworthiness) of others.
social perception
4
the focus is on the effects of emotional states, motives and values on the ease of difficulty with which objects are perceived and judged. Social meanings are often attached to stimulus objects.
object perception
5
the focus is on how we come to know about other people’s intentions, attitudes, ideas, emotions and behaviour so that we will be able to describe them, understand them, explain their behaviour and form or change our impressions, opinions and feelings about them.
person perception
6
occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us are affected by that labeling
labeling bias
7
happens when we adopt others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept.
self-labeling
8
individuals turn prejudice directed toward them by others onto themselves. I
internalized prejudice
9
may occur, which happens when we adopt others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept.
self labeling
10
occurs when we learn about our abilities and skills, about the appropriateness and validity of our opinions, and about our relative social status by comparing our own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those of others.
social comparison
11
is the way a person views him/herself. It is the continuous process of determining personal growth and progress, which can be raised or lowered by the behaviour of a close other (a person that is psychologically close).
self evaluation
12
refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or shape how others (called the audience) view them. It involves expressing oneself and behaving in ways that create a desired impression.
self presentation
13
refers to how people attempt to present themselves to control or shape how others (called the audience) view them. It involves expressing oneself and behaving in ways that create a desired impression.
impression management
14
which can be direct claims of a particular image, such as when a person claims to be altruistic.
verbalizations
15
- people self-present nonverbally in their physical appearance, body language, and other behaviour. Smiling, eye contact, and nods of agreement can convey a wealth of information.
non verbal presentation
16
people self-present through the props they surround themselves with and through their associations.
presentation with props
17
People judge others based on their associations. For example, being in the company of politicians or movie stars conveys an image of importance, and not surprisingly, many people display photographs of themselves with famous people.
association
18
The Filipino concept of self reflects a
collective perspective
19
as Filipinos tend to emphasize values and traits that promote
interpersonal cooperation, reciprocity and social acceptance
20
comprises the set of ideas, images, beliefs or schemas a person has about the self (Markus and Wurf, 1987).
self concept
21
- the perceiver regards a momentary
characteristic of the person as if it were an enduring attribute.
temporal extension
22
to the stimulus person he resembles.
assigning some of the traits of a pamiliar person
23
the stimulus person according to certain identifying characteristics. A person is then assigned all the attributes which are considered to belong to that class of persons.
caregorization/ classification
24
analogy is a linguistic comparison of two objects that emphasizes the similarities between those two objects which is often used as a means of describing a new object or concept by comparing it to something that is more familiar.
inference by analogy
25
- a person leaps from a physical characteristic to a direct inference about some personality attribute. The inference is made possible by the direct applicability to the personality attribute of the meanings attached to the physical characteristics
methqphorical generalization
26
a person bases a conclusion about personality on the functioning of some physical attribute.
finctional inference
27
refers to the
process by which one integrates and organizes various sources of information and inferences about another into a consistent meaningful whole or an overall judgment.
impression formation
28
the stimulus person says can give a lot of information about him.
verbal curs
29
can be used by the perceiver to assess the other.
non verbal cues
30
is one of the first things that we notice about a person for the first time we meet them. However, only certain aspects of appearance have been shown to influence an impression markedly.
physical appearance
31
these play an important role in communication and certain emotional expressions are innate. Emotions such as happiness, surprise, anger, sadness, fear and disgust can be quickly identified cross-culturally.
facial expressions
32
variations in speech other than the actual words or syntax, or paralanguage, carry a great deal of meaning. Pitch of the voice, loudness, rhythm, inflections and hesitations also convey information.
paralamguage
33
this is an especially interesting form of nonverbal communication. The meaning of eye contact depends on the context; but in almost all social situations, eye contact communicate information. Eye contact regulates conversations.
eye contact
34
the meaning of gestures depend on the context, the person doing the action, the culture, and many other factors. Gestures vary from straightforward, direct gestures to very subtle ones.
gestutr
35
This is the main dimension in person perception. It is considered the most important and the most powerful aspect of first impressions. In this context, people think primarily in terms of liking or disliking the person perceived. Our immediate impression may be composed of other dimensions, but they tend mainly to be parts of an overall warm, lukewarm, cool or cold responses
evaluation
36
this refers to the extent to which the information or characteristics and traits that are perceived in the other people are in agreement or in harmony with one another or with our overall impression.
consistency
37
we assume that a person have favourable traits if we already have an earlier positive impression on him or her. It is probable that we will not attribute unfavourable traits to him/ her even if there is contradictory information about that person. The perceiver distorts or rearrange the information to minimize or eliminate the inconsistency.
evaluative consistency
38
exists when we infer an additional trait that is synonymous with the known trait and tend not to infer an opposite trait. For example, we are more likely to assume a generous person is extravagant than he is stingy.
descriptive consistet
39
In this model, the perceiver had previously evaluated positively some known characteristics or traits of the stimulus person. Upon obtaining new positive information about the same person, the perceiver simply combines the old and new information.
addictive model
40
In this process, all available information about the stimulus person are regarded as equally important in the impression formation. Averaging tends to equalize the weight given to all perceived information and traits. Moderately positive information will lower the overall impression on the perceived person.
qveraging model
41
Solomon Asch’s research (1940) indicates that not all traits are created equal, and therefore a simple averaging model will sometimes not work for the final overall impression. He believed that certain traits- which he referred as central traits- tend to be dominant, exerting a disproportionate influence on people’s overall impressions and causing them to assume the presence of other traits.
centraltraits effect
42
This model by Norman Anderson (1968, 1981) attempts to reconcile the averaging model and the central traits effect. According to this model, just as people assign certain scale values to traits, they also assign specific weights to traits which determines their importance to the overall impression.
weighted averageing model
43
This involves having a general impression of someone as favourable/ good or unfavourable/ bad and this affects our perception of many of his/ her other more specific traits. In a “positive halo effect”, one who is labelled as good is then attributed with all other good qualities. On the contrary, “negative halo effect or forked-tail effect” is that where one who is labelled as bad is seen as having all bad qualities.
halo effect
44
This is the tendency of people to assume that others are similar to them especially when they are known to be in similar demographic features such as age, race, and socioeconomic status.
assumed simiralrity
45
This is our general tendency to express positive evaluations of people more often than negative evaluations. This is also called the leniency effect. Ratings of stimulus persons in laboratory studies and even public opinion polls show that political leaders are consistently rated as more pleasant in the absence of specific information about them.
positivity bias
46
- a sweet-lemon philosophy or reaction that is well despite obvious evidence to the contrary. This suggests that people feel better if they are surrounded by good things, pleasant experiences, nice people, good weather, etc. and therefore are motivated to see the world and others through “rose- colored glasses”.
polyana principle
47
This is the tendency of people to give more weight to unfavourable attributes or negative attributes or negative traits than favourable traits in forming impression of another person. This tendency to direct attention to negatively evaluated stimuli, like the tendency to notice fearful and angry faces in a crowd, is believed to have survival value for human beings.
nwgative bias
48
when perceiving the characteristics or interests of others, we tend to believe that they are similar to ours.
false sensus bias
49
his is to assure that our thoughts, beliefs and/ or actions are correct as well as to lessen the pressure to change them in the face of conflicting evidence, we assume that others think and behave as we do.
self justification
50
this is the tendency to seek out the company of those whose thoughts, beliefs, values and behaviors are similar to our own. Hence, we tend to overestimate the commonness of our responses.
selective expusote
51
we tend to think that our friends share our characteristics just because we like them. Conversely, we tend to think that we are different from our enemies just because we do not like them.
perfeption of similarity because of liking
52
this is the effect of first impressions which is so strong that it may have implications in relationships. However, in cases where the interaction between the perceiver and stimulus person is extended in time or the quality of relationship has gone beyond the superficial level, opportunity to know the real person is present. Thus the perceiver tends to be more objective.
primacy effect
53
this is the tendency of the perceiver to have an overall evaluation of a person based on the last information/ impression the perceiver had about the stimulus person. One condition where recency effect can occur is when information about a person is presented at long intervals.
recency effect
54
our initial beliefs about other people sometimes persist even when the original basis for those beliefs has been completely disconfirmed
belief perseverance
55
we tend to seek, interpret and remember information in such a way that conforms or fits to our pre-existing though and beliefs. In other words, we see what we expect. When a person’s behaviour is consistent with what we expect during the initial encounter, we tend not to pay much attention to him in succeeding encounters because instead rely on our existing beliefs about him for further assumptions about his behaviour
cognitive confirmity bias
56
this is also known as “self-fulfilling prophecy”. We tend to behave towards others in a manner that would elicit behaviors from them that seem to match or fulfil our expectations or prophecies. Our behaviour reflects more concern about the confirmation of our personal beliefs and expectations, hence there is failure to be truly open to new information.
behavioral confirmatory bias
57
we tend to overestimate the correctness of our beliefs or the accuracy of our judgments than we should. This is more likely when we are unaware of the true determinants of behaviour
overconfidence effect
58
this is observed when we look back (with hindsight) we tend to remember our past judgments as having been more accurate than they really were. There is this “I knew it all along” effect.
hindsight bias
59
is the assigning of generalized and value-laden impressions that people of one group use to characterize those another group.
sereotuping