cognitive
問題一覧
1
Defined as acts, information, and skills acquired by a person through experience or
education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.
knowledge
2
Is a set of processes that help in the assimilation, expansion, and use of Knowledge.
knowledge management
3
involves knowing THAT something is the case
declarative knowledge
4
involves knowing HOW to do something
procedural knowledge
5
-an idea about something that provides a means of understanding the world. --a fundamental unit of symbolic knowledge, or knowledge of correspondence between symbols and their meaning.
concept
6
hierarchy of concepts Ex. bird is a concept but also a category (robin,hawk etc as its members) --that is, a category is a group of items into w/c different objects or particular concepts can be placed that belong together because they share some common features, or because they are all similar to a certain prototype.
category
7
are groupings that occur naturally in the world
natural categories
8
are groupings that are designed or invented by humans to serve particular purposes or functions (automobiles, & kitchen appliances)
artifact categories
9
categories created to achieve goals in everyday life or for specific purposes.
ad hoc categories
10
in sum, has some attractive features, but it does not give a complete account of concepts or categories.
featured based thoery
11
Grouping things together not by their defining features rather by their similarity to an averaged model of the category.
prototype theory
12
typical representatives of a category.
exemplars
13
the defining feature something must have to be considered an example of a category
core
14
which refers to awareness of the sound structure of spoken language.
phonological awareness
15
which entails reading words in isolation.
phonological reading
16
This process is involved in remembering strings of phonemes that are sometimes confusing.
phonological coding
17
refers to one’s ability to retrieve phonemes from long-term memory. The question here is whether one can quickly retrieve a word from long-term memory when it is seen.
lexical access
18
kind of dyslexia that mostly well known and which is difficulty in reading that starts in childhood and typically continues throughout adulthood.
developmental dyslexia
19
A second kind of dyslexia ________, which is typically caused by traumatic brain damage. A perfectly good reader who experiences a brain injury may acquire dyslexia
acquired dyslexia
20
A very basic but important step in reading is the activation of our ability to recognize letters. When you are reading, you somehow manage to perceive the correct letter when it is presented in a wide array of typestyles and typefaces. For example, you can perceive it correctly in capital and lowercase forms, and even in cursive forms.
orthographic
21
When we read, our eyes do not move smoothly along a page or even along a line of text. Rather, our eyes move in
saccades
22
An important aspect of reading is
lexical access
23
Context effects work at both conscious and preconscious levels. Participants seem to make lexical decisions more quickly when presented with strings of letters that commonly are associated pairs of words (
word degregation
24
Are mistakes made when someone is speaking. They can be phonological, lexical, syntactic, or semantic in nature.
speech error
25
A phenomenon in which an individual's exposure to certain syntactic patterns influences their subsequent production of those patterns.
syntactical priming
26
a branch of linguistics that studies how words, phrases, and clauses are combined to form meaningful sentences.
syntax
27
a branch of linguistics that is focused on the meaning of words and phrases.
semantics
28
the smallest unit of meaning within a particular language.
morpheme
29
is the study of how to produce or combine speech sounds or to represent them with written symbols.
phonetics
30
is the smallest unit of speech sound that can be used to distinguish one utterance in a given language from another.
phoneme
31
Languages constantly evolve.
dynamic
32
Within the limits of a linguistic structure, language users can produce novel utterances. The possibilities for creating new utterances are virtually limitless.
generative, productive
33
The structure of language can be analyzed at more than one level (
structured at multiple level
34
Language has a structure; only particularly patterned arrangements of symbols have meaning, and different arrangements yield different meanings.
regularly structured
35
Language creates an arbitrary relationship between a symbol and what it represents: an idea, a thing, a process, a relationship, or a description.
arbitrarily symbolic
36
Language permits us to communicate with one or more people who share our language.
communicative
37
The study of language structure and change.
linguistics
38
The study of the relationships among the brain, cognition, and language
neurolinguistics
39
The study of the relationship between social behavior and language
sociolinguistic
40
The psychology of our language as it interacts with the human mind. It considers both production and comprehension of language.
psycholinguistic
41
refers to the assertion that speakers of different languages have differing cognitive systems and that these different cognitive systems influence the ways in which people think about the world.
language relativity
42
when participants generated their own descriptions, the subsequent accuracy of their eyewitness testimony declined
verbal shadowing effect
43
characteristic patterns across all languages of various cultures—and relativity.
linguistic universal
44
Syntactical as well as semantic structural differences across languages may affect thought
verbs and gramatical gender
45
- An intriguing experiment assessed the possible effects of linguistic relativity by studying people who speak more than one language
concepts
46
people who can speak two languages.
bilingual
47
people who can speak only one languag
monolingual
48
people who speak at least two and possibly more languages.
multilinguals
49
people who speak at least two and possibly more languages.
multilinguals
50
elements of a second language replace elements of the first language.
subtractive bilingualism
51
elements of a second language replace elements of the first language.
dialect
52
inadvertent linguistic errors in what we say.
slip of the tongue
53
example, instead of saying, “an inspiring expression,” a speaker might say, “an expiring expression.
anticipation
54
For example, a speaker might say, “We sat down to a bounteous beast” instead of a “bounteous feast.
perseveration
55
the speaker substitutes one language element for another.
substitutions
56
(also called transposition), the speaker switches the positions of two
language elements
reversal
57
the initial sounds of two words are reversed and make two
entirely different words.
spoonerism
58
one word is replaced by another that is similar in sound but
different in meaning
malopropism
59
(e.g. “drownded” instead of “drowned”)
insertion of sounds
60
juxtapose two nouns in a way that positively asserts their similarities, while not disconfirming their dissimilarities.
methapors
61
introduce the words like or as into a comparison between items (e.g., the child was as quiet as a mouse).
similes
62
the study of how people use language. It includes sociolinguistics and other aspects of the social context of language.
pragmatics
63
the distance between people in a conversation or other interaction that is considered comfortable for members of a given culture.
personal space
64
the study of interpersonal distance or its opposite, proximity. It concerns itself with relative distancing and the positioning of you and your fellow conversants.
proxemics
65
when we communicate with others, we can use either direct or indirect speech.
pseech acts
66
This occurs when a person uses indirect language because
the nature of a relationship is ambiguous.
relationship negotiations
67
It is characterized by the production of agrammatical speech at the same time that verbal comprehension ability is largely preserved.
brocas aphasia
68
It is characterized by notable impairment in the understanding of spoken words and sentences.
wernicked aphasia
69
is the combination of highly impaired comprehension and production of speech.
global aphasia
70
developmental disorder characterized by abnormalities in social behavior, language, and cognition
autism
71
breaking down the whole of a complex problem into manageable elements. Instead, or perhaps in addition, it may involve the complementary process
analysis
72
putting together various elements to arrange them into something useful.
synthesis
73
generate a diverse assortment of possible alternative solutions to a problem.
divergent thinking
74
to narrow down the multiple possibilities to converge on a single best answer.
convergent thinking
75
to narrow down the multiple possibilities to converge on a single best answer.
well structured problem
76
Their formal structure is the same, and only their content differs.
isomorphic problem
77
- There are no clear, readily available paths to a solution. They do not have well-defined problem spaces.
III structured problem
78
putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it
incubation
79
encoding the problem and formulating a general strategy for attacking the problem (or set of problems)
global planning
80
forming and implementing strategies for the details of the task (Sternberg, 1981).
local planning
81
is superior skills or achievement reflecting a well-developed and well-organized knowledge base.
expertise
82
The earliest models of how people make decisions
classical desicion theory
83
A calculation based on the individual’s judged weightings of utility (value), rather than on objective criteria.
subjective utility
84
A calculation based on the individual’s estimates of likelihood, rather than on objective statistical computation
subjective probability
85
These are mental shortcuts that lighten the cognitive load of making decisions
heuristics
86
– we are rational, but within limits
bounded rationality
87
Considers’ options one by one, and then we select option as we find one that is satisfactory or just good enough to meet our minimum level of acceptability
satisficting
88
We eliminate alternatives by focusing on aspects of each alternative, one at a time. Until we are left with a single option.
elimination by aspects
89
the likelihood of one event, given another.
conditional probability
90
The formula for calculating conditional probabilities in light of evidence is known as
bayes’s theorem
91
It explains the tendency of people to judge probabilities or likelihoods according to how much more one thing resembles another.
representative heuristics
92
It is define as a mental shortcut for making frequency or probability judgments based on ―the ease with which instances or occurrence can be brought to mind
availability heuristics
93
It describes how, when estimating a certain value, we tend to give an initial value, and then adjust it by increasing or decreasing our estimation.
anchoring snd adjustment heuristics
94
The way that the options are presented influences the selection of an option
framing effect
95
Heuristics and fallacies are often studied together because they go hand in hand. The application of a heuristic to make a decision may lead to fallacies in thinking.
fallacies
96
The phenomenon where we are predisposed to see particular events or attributes and categories as going together, even when they do not.
illosury correlation
97
An individual’s overvaluation of her or his own skills, knowledge, or judgment.
overconfidence
98
A bias that can affect all of us
hindsight bias
99
An individual gives a higher estimate for a subset of events than for the larger set of events containing the given subse
conjunction fallacy
100
This fallacy represents the decision to continue to invest in something simply because one has invested in it before and one hopes to recover one’s investment.
sunk cost fallacy
Theories of Personality
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15問 • 1年前問題一覧
1
Defined as acts, information, and skills acquired by a person through experience or
education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.
knowledge
2
Is a set of processes that help in the assimilation, expansion, and use of Knowledge.
knowledge management
3
involves knowing THAT something is the case
declarative knowledge
4
involves knowing HOW to do something
procedural knowledge
5
-an idea about something that provides a means of understanding the world. --a fundamental unit of symbolic knowledge, or knowledge of correspondence between symbols and their meaning.
concept
6
hierarchy of concepts Ex. bird is a concept but also a category (robin,hawk etc as its members) --that is, a category is a group of items into w/c different objects or particular concepts can be placed that belong together because they share some common features, or because they are all similar to a certain prototype.
category
7
are groupings that occur naturally in the world
natural categories
8
are groupings that are designed or invented by humans to serve particular purposes or functions (automobiles, & kitchen appliances)
artifact categories
9
categories created to achieve goals in everyday life or for specific purposes.
ad hoc categories
10
in sum, has some attractive features, but it does not give a complete account of concepts or categories.
featured based thoery
11
Grouping things together not by their defining features rather by their similarity to an averaged model of the category.
prototype theory
12
typical representatives of a category.
exemplars
13
the defining feature something must have to be considered an example of a category
core
14
which refers to awareness of the sound structure of spoken language.
phonological awareness
15
which entails reading words in isolation.
phonological reading
16
This process is involved in remembering strings of phonemes that are sometimes confusing.
phonological coding
17
refers to one’s ability to retrieve phonemes from long-term memory. The question here is whether one can quickly retrieve a word from long-term memory when it is seen.
lexical access
18
kind of dyslexia that mostly well known and which is difficulty in reading that starts in childhood and typically continues throughout adulthood.
developmental dyslexia
19
A second kind of dyslexia ________, which is typically caused by traumatic brain damage. A perfectly good reader who experiences a brain injury may acquire dyslexia
acquired dyslexia
20
A very basic but important step in reading is the activation of our ability to recognize letters. When you are reading, you somehow manage to perceive the correct letter when it is presented in a wide array of typestyles and typefaces. For example, you can perceive it correctly in capital and lowercase forms, and even in cursive forms.
orthographic
21
When we read, our eyes do not move smoothly along a page or even along a line of text. Rather, our eyes move in
saccades
22
An important aspect of reading is
lexical access
23
Context effects work at both conscious and preconscious levels. Participants seem to make lexical decisions more quickly when presented with strings of letters that commonly are associated pairs of words (
word degregation
24
Are mistakes made when someone is speaking. They can be phonological, lexical, syntactic, or semantic in nature.
speech error
25
A phenomenon in which an individual's exposure to certain syntactic patterns influences their subsequent production of those patterns.
syntactical priming
26
a branch of linguistics that studies how words, phrases, and clauses are combined to form meaningful sentences.
syntax
27
a branch of linguistics that is focused on the meaning of words and phrases.
semantics
28
the smallest unit of meaning within a particular language.
morpheme
29
is the study of how to produce or combine speech sounds or to represent them with written symbols.
phonetics
30
is the smallest unit of speech sound that can be used to distinguish one utterance in a given language from another.
phoneme
31
Languages constantly evolve.
dynamic
32
Within the limits of a linguistic structure, language users can produce novel utterances. The possibilities for creating new utterances are virtually limitless.
generative, productive
33
The structure of language can be analyzed at more than one level (
structured at multiple level
34
Language has a structure; only particularly patterned arrangements of symbols have meaning, and different arrangements yield different meanings.
regularly structured
35
Language creates an arbitrary relationship between a symbol and what it represents: an idea, a thing, a process, a relationship, or a description.
arbitrarily symbolic
36
Language permits us to communicate with one or more people who share our language.
communicative
37
The study of language structure and change.
linguistics
38
The study of the relationships among the brain, cognition, and language
neurolinguistics
39
The study of the relationship between social behavior and language
sociolinguistic
40
The psychology of our language as it interacts with the human mind. It considers both production and comprehension of language.
psycholinguistic
41
refers to the assertion that speakers of different languages have differing cognitive systems and that these different cognitive systems influence the ways in which people think about the world.
language relativity
42
when participants generated their own descriptions, the subsequent accuracy of their eyewitness testimony declined
verbal shadowing effect
43
characteristic patterns across all languages of various cultures—and relativity.
linguistic universal
44
Syntactical as well as semantic structural differences across languages may affect thought
verbs and gramatical gender
45
- An intriguing experiment assessed the possible effects of linguistic relativity by studying people who speak more than one language
concepts
46
people who can speak two languages.
bilingual
47
people who can speak only one languag
monolingual
48
people who speak at least two and possibly more languages.
multilinguals
49
people who speak at least two and possibly more languages.
multilinguals
50
elements of a second language replace elements of the first language.
subtractive bilingualism
51
elements of a second language replace elements of the first language.
dialect
52
inadvertent linguistic errors in what we say.
slip of the tongue
53
example, instead of saying, “an inspiring expression,” a speaker might say, “an expiring expression.
anticipation
54
For example, a speaker might say, “We sat down to a bounteous beast” instead of a “bounteous feast.
perseveration
55
the speaker substitutes one language element for another.
substitutions
56
(also called transposition), the speaker switches the positions of two
language elements
reversal
57
the initial sounds of two words are reversed and make two
entirely different words.
spoonerism
58
one word is replaced by another that is similar in sound but
different in meaning
malopropism
59
(e.g. “drownded” instead of “drowned”)
insertion of sounds
60
juxtapose two nouns in a way that positively asserts their similarities, while not disconfirming their dissimilarities.
methapors
61
introduce the words like or as into a comparison between items (e.g., the child was as quiet as a mouse).
similes
62
the study of how people use language. It includes sociolinguistics and other aspects of the social context of language.
pragmatics
63
the distance between people in a conversation or other interaction that is considered comfortable for members of a given culture.
personal space
64
the study of interpersonal distance or its opposite, proximity. It concerns itself with relative distancing and the positioning of you and your fellow conversants.
proxemics
65
when we communicate with others, we can use either direct or indirect speech.
pseech acts
66
This occurs when a person uses indirect language because
the nature of a relationship is ambiguous.
relationship negotiations
67
It is characterized by the production of agrammatical speech at the same time that verbal comprehension ability is largely preserved.
brocas aphasia
68
It is characterized by notable impairment in the understanding of spoken words and sentences.
wernicked aphasia
69
is the combination of highly impaired comprehension and production of speech.
global aphasia
70
developmental disorder characterized by abnormalities in social behavior, language, and cognition
autism
71
breaking down the whole of a complex problem into manageable elements. Instead, or perhaps in addition, it may involve the complementary process
analysis
72
putting together various elements to arrange them into something useful.
synthesis
73
generate a diverse assortment of possible alternative solutions to a problem.
divergent thinking
74
to narrow down the multiple possibilities to converge on a single best answer.
convergent thinking
75
to narrow down the multiple possibilities to converge on a single best answer.
well structured problem
76
Their formal structure is the same, and only their content differs.
isomorphic problem
77
- There are no clear, readily available paths to a solution. They do not have well-defined problem spaces.
III structured problem
78
putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it
incubation
79
encoding the problem and formulating a general strategy for attacking the problem (or set of problems)
global planning
80
forming and implementing strategies for the details of the task (Sternberg, 1981).
local planning
81
is superior skills or achievement reflecting a well-developed and well-organized knowledge base.
expertise
82
The earliest models of how people make decisions
classical desicion theory
83
A calculation based on the individual’s judged weightings of utility (value), rather than on objective criteria.
subjective utility
84
A calculation based on the individual’s estimates of likelihood, rather than on objective statistical computation
subjective probability
85
These are mental shortcuts that lighten the cognitive load of making decisions
heuristics
86
– we are rational, but within limits
bounded rationality
87
Considers’ options one by one, and then we select option as we find one that is satisfactory or just good enough to meet our minimum level of acceptability
satisficting
88
We eliminate alternatives by focusing on aspects of each alternative, one at a time. Until we are left with a single option.
elimination by aspects
89
the likelihood of one event, given another.
conditional probability
90
The formula for calculating conditional probabilities in light of evidence is known as
bayes’s theorem
91
It explains the tendency of people to judge probabilities or likelihoods according to how much more one thing resembles another.
representative heuristics
92
It is define as a mental shortcut for making frequency or probability judgments based on ―the ease with which instances or occurrence can be brought to mind
availability heuristics
93
It describes how, when estimating a certain value, we tend to give an initial value, and then adjust it by increasing or decreasing our estimation.
anchoring snd adjustment heuristics
94
The way that the options are presented influences the selection of an option
framing effect
95
Heuristics and fallacies are often studied together because they go hand in hand. The application of a heuristic to make a decision may lead to fallacies in thinking.
fallacies
96
The phenomenon where we are predisposed to see particular events or attributes and categories as going together, even when they do not.
illosury correlation
97
An individual’s overvaluation of her or his own skills, knowledge, or judgment.
overconfidence
98
A bias that can affect all of us
hindsight bias
99
An individual gives a higher estimate for a subset of events than for the larger set of events containing the given subse
conjunction fallacy
100
This fallacy represents the decision to continue to invest in something simply because one has invested in it before and one hopes to recover one’s investment.
sunk cost fallacy