Ecology 1
問題一覧
1
“By ecology we mean the body of the knowledge concerning the economy of nature - the investigation of the total relations of the animal to its inorganic and organic environment”
Haeckel (German Zoologist, 1869)
2
Elevated Ecology to one of the three natural division of Biology: Physiology-Morphology-Ecology
Burdon-Sanderson (1890s)
3
“The scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms”
Andrewartha (1961)
4
“The Structure and function of Nature”
Odum (1963)
5
“Ecology is the scientific study of the processes regulating the distribution and abundance of organisms and the interactions among them, and the study of how these organisms in turn mediate the transport and transformation of energy and matter in the biosphere (i.e. the study of the design of ecosystem structure and function)”
Krebs (1972)
6
Any group interacting, interrelated, and interdependent parts that form a complex and unified whole that has a specific purpose
system
7
Each component is a simultaneously a system itself and a part of a bigger system
holons
8
A property that is observable from the whole system but not from its parts alone
Emergent Properties
9
Deals with population, community, and ecosystem dynamics
Ecology
10
A process that changes the frequency of genes in a population
Evolution
11
Process wherein new kinds of life are created. Occurs when a group separates from other members of its species and develops its own unique characteristics
Speciation
12
A group of individuals of a single species inhabiting a specific area. Considered as the smallest ecological unit.
Populations
13
Group of spatially separated subpopulations connected by active exchange of individuals among subpopulations
Metapopulations
14
Anything that constrains the growth, distribution, or abundance of a population. Growth is limited by the scarcest resource
Limiting Factors
15
The number of individuals per unit area
Population Density
16
Spatial arrangement of individuals in a local population
Population Distribution
17
Graphical summary of patterns of survival in a population
Survivorship curves
18
An association of interacting populations of species living in a particular area. An ecological unit above populations.
Community
19
One species benefits while the other is neither benefitted nor harmed
Commensalism
20
Both species benefit from interacting with each other
Mutualism
21
One species benefits while the other is harmed
Parasitism
22
Community interactions between individuals coming from the same species
Intraspecific competition
23
Community interactions between individuals coming from different species
Interspecific Competition
24
The environmental factors that influence the growth, survival, and reproduction of a species
Ecological Niche
25
No two organisms having the same exact niche can coexist
Competitive Exclusion Principle
26
Many organisms can coexist if they can split the diverse resources among themselves
Resource Partitioning
27
Species that exert strong effects on community structure, despite their low biomass
Keystone Species
28
A biological community (biotic) plus its biotope (abiotic). The most basic functional unit in ecology.
Ecosystem
29
Benefits that the natural environment and healthy ecosystem provide to humans
Ecosystem Services
30
The partitioning of biomass between trophic levels
Trophic Structure
31
Trophic position in an ecosystem (i.e. primary producer, primary consumer, secondart consumer, etc.)
Trophic Levels
32
A food chain that begins from the consumption of live plants
Grazing Food Chain
33
A food chain that begins from the consumption of detritus or decaying matter
Detritus Food Chain
34
Ecosystem component wherein fixation of light energy, use of simple inorganic substances and build-up of complex substances predominate
Autotrophs
35
Ecosystem component wherein utilization, rearrangement, and decomposition of complex materials predominate
Heterotrophs
36
Effect of predators on prey that alter properties of a population, community, or trophic level across 1 or more link in the food web.
Trophic Cascade
37
Variability among all living organisms
Biodiversity
38
Variability of genes within a population
Genetic Diversity
39
Variability of species in a community
Species Diversity
40
Variability of habitats in a landscape
Ecosystem Diversity
41
Production of chemical energy in organic compounds by living things
primary production
42
The breaking down of organic matter accompanied by the release of carbon dioxide and other inorganic compounds. A key process is nutrient cycling.
Decomposition
43
Primary Production influencing factors
Light, Water, Temperature, Community Interactions
44
Decomposition Influencing factors
Temperature, Moisture content, Chemical composition
45
Relatively discrete event. Disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure. Changes resources, substrate availability, or the physical environment
disturbance
46
Gradual change in plant and animal communities in an area following a disturbance or creation of new substrate
Ecological succession
47
The first community, in a successional sequence of communities, to be established following a disturbance
Pioneer community
48
Mechanism Models (Connell-Slatyer Model of Succession 1977)
Pioneer species make the environment of an area more suitable for species in later successional stage
Facilitation
49
Mechanism Models (Connell-Slatyer Model of Succession 1977)
All types of species are present at the pioneer stage, and only the most tolerant species will survive into the climax stage
Tolerance
50
Mechanism Models (Connell-Slatyer Model of Succession 1977)
Early occupants make the environment of an area less suitable for other successional species
Inhibition
51
Intermediate stages of succession wherein a community transitions from a pioneer to climax community structure
Seral communities
52
A community that occurs late in a succession whose populations remain stable until disrupted by disturbance
climax community
53
Capacity to recover structure and foundation after disturbance
Resilience
54
Species that fulfill similar or equivalent function in the ecosystem can take over each other’s roles in case of one species’ local extinction
Ecological Redundancy
55
a proposal that high diversity is maintained by changing environmental conditions and that high levels of diversity will occur at intermediate levels of disturbance
intermediate disturbance hypothesis
56
Small stochastic changes can lead to alternate ecosystem states
multiple stable states
57
Point wherein small changes in environmental conditions associated with disturbances lead to switching between stable states.
ecological threshold
58
Spatial and temporal dynamics over a longer time period
Disturbance regime
59
Components of a disturbance regime include
spatial distribution, Frequency, return interval, rotation period, size, intensity, severity, residuals
60
An ecological unit with boundaries and uniform environmental conditions providing a living space for a biological community. Almost synonymous to “habitat”
Biotope
61
Emphasizes the interaction between spatial pattern and ecological process that is, the causes and consequences of spatial heterogeneity across a range of scales
landscape ecology
62
An area that is spatially heterogeneous in at least one area of interest
landscape
63
A surface area that differs from its surroundings in nature or appearance. They exhibit a degree of isolation, the effect and severity of which depending on the species present
Landscape Patch
64
Landscape Patch
Areas remaining from an earlier more extensive type such as woodlots in agricultural areas
Remnant Patch
65
Landscape Patch
new suburban development in an agricultural area, or a small pasture within a forest
Introduced Patch
66
Landscape Patch
Burned area in a forest or a spot devastated by a severe windstorm
Disturbance Patch
67
Landscape Patch
Wetlands in a city, or oases in a desert
Environmental Resource Patch
68
A relatively narrow strip of a particular type that differs from the areas adjacent on both sides
Landscape Corridor
69
The background cover type(s) in a landscpe, characterized by extensive cover and high connectivity
Landscape Matrix
70
The spatial continuity of a habitat or cover type across a landscape
Connectivity
71
The breaking up of a habitat or cover type into a smaller, disconnected parcels; often associated with, but not equivalent to, habitat loss
Fragmentation
72
The ability of patched to support populations depends on:
size, number, shape, location
73
Transitory zone between two habitats. Can be gradual or abrupt gradients
Ecotone
74
Changes in ecological structure occuring at the boundary of two habitats
edge effect
75
Breaking up a larger/intact habitat into smaller dispersed patches
fragmentation
76
Creating holes within an essentially intact habitat
perforation
77
The decrease in size of one or more habitats
shrinkage
78
The disappearance of one or more habitat patches
attrition
79
Corridors often interconnect with one another to form ________, enclosing other landscape elements
networks
80
What is the common landscape pattern
fragmentation
81
Key drivers of landscape pattern formation
abiotic conditions, biotic interactions, natural disturbances, human land use
82
Composite, long-term, or generally prevailing weather of a region. Acts as a strong control on biogeographic patterns through the distribution of energy and water. Varies with latitude and continental distribution
climate
83
Determines regional climatic conditions, influencing global biome distribution
global atmospheric circulation
84
Biogeographic region characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife
biome
85
Areas where ecosystems are generally similar
ecoregions
86
When rocks are broken down (weathered) into small fragments, and carried by wind, water, ice and gravity. Energy for this process is solar and gravitational
soil erosios
87
Factors in forecasting erosion rates
vegetation, soil type, slope size and inclination, frequency and intensity of rainfall
88
Small gradients in environmental resources (e.g. temperature, moisture) can result in huge variation in vegetative structure
biotic interactions
89
Refers to the dominant habitat or vegetation type present
land cover
90
Encompasses all those ways in which human uses of the land varied through time
land use change
91
The natural science that studies the waters of the earth
hydrology
92
The planet’s water cycle, described by the movement of water from the oceans to the atmosphere to the continents and back to the sea
hydrologic cycle
93
The upper boundary of the zone of groundwater; the top of unconfined aquifer
water tables
94
A permeable geological stratum or formation that can both store and transmit groundwater in significant quantities
aquifer
95
Area of land that forms the drainage system for a stream or river. Also known as a “drainage basin”.
watershed
96
Watershed boundaries are determined by _____, specifically highest points surrounding a water body
topography
97
A holistic and integrative environmental management approach that recognizes the functional interconnectedness of upland, lowland, and coastal ecosystems, regardless of proximity or distance
ridge-to-reef approach
98
The transformation of unoccupied or sparsely unoccupied land into densely occupied cities
urbanization
99
Green patches within the built-up urban matrix. Can serve as habitat and provide ecosystem servies
urban green space
100
Phenomenon wherein built-up areas exhibit higher temperatures comapred to its surrounding rural environment
urban heat island effect
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1
“By ecology we mean the body of the knowledge concerning the economy of nature - the investigation of the total relations of the animal to its inorganic and organic environment”
Haeckel (German Zoologist, 1869)
2
Elevated Ecology to one of the three natural division of Biology: Physiology-Morphology-Ecology
Burdon-Sanderson (1890s)
3
“The scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms”
Andrewartha (1961)
4
“The Structure and function of Nature”
Odum (1963)
5
“Ecology is the scientific study of the processes regulating the distribution and abundance of organisms and the interactions among them, and the study of how these organisms in turn mediate the transport and transformation of energy and matter in the biosphere (i.e. the study of the design of ecosystem structure and function)”
Krebs (1972)
6
Any group interacting, interrelated, and interdependent parts that form a complex and unified whole that has a specific purpose
system
7
Each component is a simultaneously a system itself and a part of a bigger system
holons
8
A property that is observable from the whole system but not from its parts alone
Emergent Properties
9
Deals with population, community, and ecosystem dynamics
Ecology
10
A process that changes the frequency of genes in a population
Evolution
11
Process wherein new kinds of life are created. Occurs when a group separates from other members of its species and develops its own unique characteristics
Speciation
12
A group of individuals of a single species inhabiting a specific area. Considered as the smallest ecological unit.
Populations
13
Group of spatially separated subpopulations connected by active exchange of individuals among subpopulations
Metapopulations
14
Anything that constrains the growth, distribution, or abundance of a population. Growth is limited by the scarcest resource
Limiting Factors
15
The number of individuals per unit area
Population Density
16
Spatial arrangement of individuals in a local population
Population Distribution
17
Graphical summary of patterns of survival in a population
Survivorship curves
18
An association of interacting populations of species living in a particular area. An ecological unit above populations.
Community
19
One species benefits while the other is neither benefitted nor harmed
Commensalism
20
Both species benefit from interacting with each other
Mutualism
21
One species benefits while the other is harmed
Parasitism
22
Community interactions between individuals coming from the same species
Intraspecific competition
23
Community interactions between individuals coming from different species
Interspecific Competition
24
The environmental factors that influence the growth, survival, and reproduction of a species
Ecological Niche
25
No two organisms having the same exact niche can coexist
Competitive Exclusion Principle
26
Many organisms can coexist if they can split the diverse resources among themselves
Resource Partitioning
27
Species that exert strong effects on community structure, despite their low biomass
Keystone Species
28
A biological community (biotic) plus its biotope (abiotic). The most basic functional unit in ecology.
Ecosystem
29
Benefits that the natural environment and healthy ecosystem provide to humans
Ecosystem Services
30
The partitioning of biomass between trophic levels
Trophic Structure
31
Trophic position in an ecosystem (i.e. primary producer, primary consumer, secondart consumer, etc.)
Trophic Levels
32
A food chain that begins from the consumption of live plants
Grazing Food Chain
33
A food chain that begins from the consumption of detritus or decaying matter
Detritus Food Chain
34
Ecosystem component wherein fixation of light energy, use of simple inorganic substances and build-up of complex substances predominate
Autotrophs
35
Ecosystem component wherein utilization, rearrangement, and decomposition of complex materials predominate
Heterotrophs
36
Effect of predators on prey that alter properties of a population, community, or trophic level across 1 or more link in the food web.
Trophic Cascade
37
Variability among all living organisms
Biodiversity
38
Variability of genes within a population
Genetic Diversity
39
Variability of species in a community
Species Diversity
40
Variability of habitats in a landscape
Ecosystem Diversity
41
Production of chemical energy in organic compounds by living things
primary production
42
The breaking down of organic matter accompanied by the release of carbon dioxide and other inorganic compounds. A key process is nutrient cycling.
Decomposition
43
Primary Production influencing factors
Light, Water, Temperature, Community Interactions
44
Decomposition Influencing factors
Temperature, Moisture content, Chemical composition
45
Relatively discrete event. Disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure. Changes resources, substrate availability, or the physical environment
disturbance
46
Gradual change in plant and animal communities in an area following a disturbance or creation of new substrate
Ecological succession
47
The first community, in a successional sequence of communities, to be established following a disturbance
Pioneer community
48
Mechanism Models (Connell-Slatyer Model of Succession 1977)
Pioneer species make the environment of an area more suitable for species in later successional stage
Facilitation
49
Mechanism Models (Connell-Slatyer Model of Succession 1977)
All types of species are present at the pioneer stage, and only the most tolerant species will survive into the climax stage
Tolerance
50
Mechanism Models (Connell-Slatyer Model of Succession 1977)
Early occupants make the environment of an area less suitable for other successional species
Inhibition
51
Intermediate stages of succession wherein a community transitions from a pioneer to climax community structure
Seral communities
52
A community that occurs late in a succession whose populations remain stable until disrupted by disturbance
climax community
53
Capacity to recover structure and foundation after disturbance
Resilience
54
Species that fulfill similar or equivalent function in the ecosystem can take over each other’s roles in case of one species’ local extinction
Ecological Redundancy
55
a proposal that high diversity is maintained by changing environmental conditions and that high levels of diversity will occur at intermediate levels of disturbance
intermediate disturbance hypothesis
56
Small stochastic changes can lead to alternate ecosystem states
multiple stable states
57
Point wherein small changes in environmental conditions associated with disturbances lead to switching between stable states.
ecological threshold
58
Spatial and temporal dynamics over a longer time period
Disturbance regime
59
Components of a disturbance regime include
spatial distribution, Frequency, return interval, rotation period, size, intensity, severity, residuals
60
An ecological unit with boundaries and uniform environmental conditions providing a living space for a biological community. Almost synonymous to “habitat”
Biotope
61
Emphasizes the interaction between spatial pattern and ecological process that is, the causes and consequences of spatial heterogeneity across a range of scales
landscape ecology
62
An area that is spatially heterogeneous in at least one area of interest
landscape
63
A surface area that differs from its surroundings in nature or appearance. They exhibit a degree of isolation, the effect and severity of which depending on the species present
Landscape Patch
64
Landscape Patch
Areas remaining from an earlier more extensive type such as woodlots in agricultural areas
Remnant Patch
65
Landscape Patch
new suburban development in an agricultural area, or a small pasture within a forest
Introduced Patch
66
Landscape Patch
Burned area in a forest or a spot devastated by a severe windstorm
Disturbance Patch
67
Landscape Patch
Wetlands in a city, or oases in a desert
Environmental Resource Patch
68
A relatively narrow strip of a particular type that differs from the areas adjacent on both sides
Landscape Corridor
69
The background cover type(s) in a landscpe, characterized by extensive cover and high connectivity
Landscape Matrix
70
The spatial continuity of a habitat or cover type across a landscape
Connectivity
71
The breaking up of a habitat or cover type into a smaller, disconnected parcels; often associated with, but not equivalent to, habitat loss
Fragmentation
72
The ability of patched to support populations depends on:
size, number, shape, location
73
Transitory zone between two habitats. Can be gradual or abrupt gradients
Ecotone
74
Changes in ecological structure occuring at the boundary of two habitats
edge effect
75
Breaking up a larger/intact habitat into smaller dispersed patches
fragmentation
76
Creating holes within an essentially intact habitat
perforation
77
The decrease in size of one or more habitats
shrinkage
78
The disappearance of one or more habitat patches
attrition
79
Corridors often interconnect with one another to form ________, enclosing other landscape elements
networks
80
What is the common landscape pattern
fragmentation
81
Key drivers of landscape pattern formation
abiotic conditions, biotic interactions, natural disturbances, human land use
82
Composite, long-term, or generally prevailing weather of a region. Acts as a strong control on biogeographic patterns through the distribution of energy and water. Varies with latitude and continental distribution
climate
83
Determines regional climatic conditions, influencing global biome distribution
global atmospheric circulation
84
Biogeographic region characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife
biome
85
Areas where ecosystems are generally similar
ecoregions
86
When rocks are broken down (weathered) into small fragments, and carried by wind, water, ice and gravity. Energy for this process is solar and gravitational
soil erosios
87
Factors in forecasting erosion rates
vegetation, soil type, slope size and inclination, frequency and intensity of rainfall
88
Small gradients in environmental resources (e.g. temperature, moisture) can result in huge variation in vegetative structure
biotic interactions
89
Refers to the dominant habitat or vegetation type present
land cover
90
Encompasses all those ways in which human uses of the land varied through time
land use change
91
The natural science that studies the waters of the earth
hydrology
92
The planet’s water cycle, described by the movement of water from the oceans to the atmosphere to the continents and back to the sea
hydrologic cycle
93
The upper boundary of the zone of groundwater; the top of unconfined aquifer
water tables
94
A permeable geological stratum or formation that can both store and transmit groundwater in significant quantities
aquifer
95
Area of land that forms the drainage system for a stream or river. Also known as a “drainage basin”.
watershed
96
Watershed boundaries are determined by _____, specifically highest points surrounding a water body
topography
97
A holistic and integrative environmental management approach that recognizes the functional interconnectedness of upland, lowland, and coastal ecosystems, regardless of proximity or distance
ridge-to-reef approach
98
The transformation of unoccupied or sparsely unoccupied land into densely occupied cities
urbanization
99
Green patches within the built-up urban matrix. Can serve as habitat and provide ecosystem servies
urban green space
100
Phenomenon wherein built-up areas exhibit higher temperatures comapred to its surrounding rural environment
urban heat island effect