PSYC TEST 3 - Memory (M.23~25)

It's information that has been aquired and stored and can be retrived - it's learning that persists over time

5000

recall - retrieving info that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time - fill-in-the blank question test recognition - identifying items previously learned - multiple-choice question relearning - learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time

It's a measurement of memory that was developed by David Wechsler, it includes a global assessment of memory functioning.

recognition

recall

Recall (short-answer or fill-in-the-blank self-test questions) rather than recognition (multiple choice questions). Recalling is harder than recognition. When you cal recall it --> your retention of the material is better than if you could only recognize it.

Encode - get info into our brain Store - retain that info Retrieve - later get the info back out

simultaneously(some of them unconsciously) & parallel processing

connectionism

1. We first record to-be-remembered info as a fleeting sensory memory 2. From there, we process info into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal 3. Finally, info moves into long-term memory for later retrieval

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model viewed short-term memory as a temporary holding space for briefly storing recent thoughts and experiences. The newer idea of working memory expands our understanding of Atkinson-Shiffrin's short-term memory stage, emphasizing the conscious, active processing that takes place as the brain makes sense of new experiences and links them with our long-term memories.

Working memory's 2 basic functions are active integration of new information with existing long-term memories and focusing of our spotlight of attention.

how we process explicit(declarative) memories - the facts adn experiences that we can consciously know and declare We encode many explicit memories through conscious effortful processing The automatic pocessing produces some things we can know without actively thinking about them and also produces our implicit (nondeclarative memories)

Space - you encode the place where certain material appears Time - unintentionally noth the sequence of its events Frequency - you effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen

It's a fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli

It's an impeccable, though fleeting, memory for auditory stimuli

Automatic processing occurs unconsciously for such things as the sequence and frequency of a day's events, and reading and comprehending words in our own language. Effortful processing requires attentive awareness and happens, for example, when we work hard to learn new material in class, or lines for a play.

Sensory memory

Chunkcing - organizing items into familiar, manageable units - enables us to recall it more easily Mnemonics - we more easily remember concrete, visualizable words than we do abstract words Hierarchies - composing a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

Spacing effect - We retain info better when our encoding is distributed over time. Distributed practice produces better long-term recall. Massed practice(cramming) - can produce speedy short-term learning and an inflated feeling of confidence Testing effet - testing does more than assess learning and memory, it also improves them + spaced study and self-assessment beat cramming and rereading

Shallow processing - encodes on an elementary level (word's letter and sound) Deep processing - encodes semantically based on the meaning of the words

recall

encoding & storage & retrieval

clarifies the idea of short-term memory by focusing on the active processing that occrs in this stage

iconic & echoic

7

mnemonics

encoding, storage, retrieval

Dual processes - conscious & unconscious Explicit memories - our conscious memories of facts and experiences - from through effortful processing - requires conscious effeort and attention Implicit memories - learned skills and classically conditioned associations - happen without our awareness, through automatic processing

Space, time, and frequency

It feeds some information into working memory for active processing there. Iconic memory is a very bried (a few tenths of a second) sensory memory of visual stimuli; and echoic memory is a 3-or-4-second sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

Distributed practice sessions (the spacing effect) produce better long-term recall. The testing effect is the finding that consciously retrieving, rather than simply rereadin, information enhances memory. Depth of processing also affects long-term retention. In shallow processing, we encode words based on their structure or appearance. Retention is best when we use deep processing, encoding words based on their meaning. We also more easily remember material when we learn and rephrase it into personally meaningful terms - the self-reference effect.

It's either semantic (facts and general knowledge) or episodic (experienced event) Hippocampus, a temporal lobe neural structure can be linkened to a "save" button for explicit memories

Implicit memory is for skills and newly conditioned associations Cerebellum plays a key rold in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning. Basal ganglia, deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills.

The cerebellum and basal ganglia - implicit memory processing The frontal lobes and hippocampus - explicit memory formation

Oue explicit conscious memories of facts and episodes differ from implicit memories of skills and classically conditioned responses. The parts of brain involved in explicit memory processing mat have sustained damage in the accident, while parts involved in implicit memory processing appear to have escaped harm. Im - cb (cerebellum and basal ganglia) Em - fh (frontal lobes and hippocampus)

It's 2 limbic system, emotion-processing clusters that is provoked by stress to initiates a memory trace - a lasting physical change as the memory forms - the boosts activity in the brain's memory-forming areas.

perceived clarity of memories of surpring, significant events vividness and confidence of the memory

LTP, increased efficiency of potential neural firing, provides a neural basis for learning and remembering associations.

the amygdala

long-term potentiation

retrospective memory & prespective memory

Bits of information that you can later use to access the information

wakening of associations, it's how our associations are often activated without out awareness

It's how specific cues will most effectively trigger the memory.

Context-dependent memory - affected by the cues we have associated with the context, our memories are context-dependent State-dependent memory - what we learn in one state (drunk or sober) may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state. - Our memories are mood congruent

It explaines why we may have large holes in our memory of a list of recent events.

Priming is the activation (often unconscious) of associations. ex) seeing a gun might temporarily predispose someone to interpret an ambiguous face as threatening or to recall a boss as nasty.

serial position

temporary processing site for explicit memories

an increase in a cell' firing potential

implicit

retrieval cues

Memories are stored within a web of many associations, one of which is mood. When you recall happy moments from your past, you activate these positive links. You may then expereince mood-congruent memoey and recall other happy moments, which could improve your mood and brigthen your interpretation of current events.

the first items on the list

Our long-term memory capacity is essentially unlimited. Memories are not stored intact in the brain in single spots. Many parts of the brain interact as we encode, store, and retrieve memories.

The frontal lobes - many brain regions send information to the frontal lobes for processing. The hippocampus - with the help of nearby brain networks, it registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories (either semantic or episodic) before moving them to other brain regions for long-term storage. The neural storage of long-term memories, which is supported by sleep, is called memory consolidation.

The cerebellum and basal ganglia are parts of the brain network dedicated to implicit memory formation. - The cerebellum is important for storing clasically conditioned memories. - The basal ganglia are involved in motor movement and help form procedural memories for skills. Many reactions and skills learned during our first 4 years continue into adult lives, though we cannot consciously remember learning these associations and skills (infantile amnesia)

Emotional arousal causes an outpouring of stress hormones, which leads the amygdala to boost activity in the brain's memory-forming areas. Significanly stressful events can trigger very clear flashbulb memories. Through rehearsal, memory of personally important experiences largely endures.

Long-term potentiation is the neural basis for learning and memory. In LTP, neurons become more efficient at releasing and sensing the presence of neurotransmitters, and more connections develop between neurons.

External cues activate associations that help us retrieve memories; this process may occur without our awareness, as it does in priming. The encoding specificity principle is the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it. Returning to the same physical context or emotional state (mood congruency) in which we formed a memory can help us retrieve it. The serial position effect is our tendency to recall best the last items (which may still be in working memory) and the first items (which we've spent more time rehearsing) in a list.

It's a disease that doesn't allow people to form new memories, but still can remember the past

It's disease that doesn't allow people to remember their past, the memories stored in long-term memory

It's a forward-acting that occurs when prior learning disrupts your recall of new informaiton.

It's a backward-acting that occurs when new learning disrupts your recall of old information

Encoding failure - unattended information never entered our memory system Storage decay - information fades from our memory Retrieval failure - we cannot access stored information accurately, sometimes due to interference or motivated forgetting

repress

When we replay a memory, we often replace the original with a slightly modified version as a whispered message gets progressively altered when passed from person to person.

Despite feeling confident, we may, when exposed to subtly misleading information, misremember what we've seen or heard.

It's when attributing memory to own experienes rather than to stories. Misattribution is at the heart of many false memories. It helps explain deja vu - "I've seen in this exact situation before"

Real expereinces would be confused with those we dreamed. When seeing people we know, we might therefore be unsure whether we were reacting to something they previously did or to something we dreamed they did.

survey, question, read, retrieve, review

Rehearse repeatedly - to master material, remember the spacing effect-use distributed practice (seperate study sessions) Make the material meaningful - you can build a network of retrieval cues by forming as many associations as possible Activate retrieval cues - context-dependent and state-dependent memory - mentally re-create the situation and the mood in which your original learning occured Use mnemonic devices - make up a story that incorporates vivid images of the concepts. chunk information and create a memorable mnemonic Minimize proactive and retroactive interference - study before you sleep Sleep more - during sleep, the brain reorganizes and consolidates information for long-term memory Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find our what you don't yet know - testing effet is real and powerful, try to recall

Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material to boost long-term recall, Verbalize your learning by saying it out loud, Schedule spaced study times, Make the material personally meaningful with well-organized and vivid associations, Refresh your memory by returning to contexts and moods to activate retrieval cues, Use mnemonic devices, Minimize proactive and retroactive interference, Plan ahead to ensure a complete night's sleep, Test yourself repeatedly

short-term memory into long-term memory

level off

retroactive

repression

the misinformation effect

Her immature hippocampus and minimal verbal skills made it impossible for her to encode an explicit memory of the wedding reception at the age of 2. It's more likely that she learned information by hearing the story repeatedly that she eventually constructed into a memory that feels very real.

source amnesia

deja vu

a neural person asks nonleading questions soon after the event

we tend to repress extremely upsetting memories

Anterograde amnesia - an inability to form new memories Retrograde amnesia - an inability to retrieve old memories Encoding failure - normal forgetting can happen because we have never encoded information Storage decay - the physical memory trace has decayed Retrieval failure - we cannot retrieve what have encoded and stored - proactive, forward-acting interference - when prior learning interferes with recall of new information - retroactive, backward-acting interference - when new learning disrupts recall of old information Repression - motivated forgetting occurs

Memories can be continually revised when retrieved, reconsolidation. Exposure to misleading information, misinformation, and imagination effects corrupt our stored memories of what actually happened. Source amnesia - when we reassemble a memory suring retrieval, we may attrubute it to the wrong source - it may help expain deja vu

The debate focuses on whether memories of early childhood abuse are repressed and can be recovered during therapy. Unless the victim was a child too young to remember, such traumas are usually remembered vividly, not repressed. childhood sexual abuse happens; injustice happens; forgetting happens; recovered memories are common; memories of eventes that happened before age 4 are reliable; memories recovered under hypnosis are especially unreliable; and meories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting