PSYC EXAM 3 - Lecture

the leraning that has persisted over time through encoding (getting info into memory), storage (maintaining info in memory), and retrieval (getting info out of memory) it's associated with the cognitive perspective

Sensory --> STM --> LTM

- information enters via our sensory organs - can hold vast amounts of information - after-image or sound lingers briefly after the stimulus (S) is removed - iconic memory (visual S) lasts a fraction of sec - echoic memory (auditory S) lasts 3~4 secs - attention is needed for info to be encoded in STM - info not attended to decays and won't be recalled

- working memory - can hold unrehearsed info for 20 secs - has a limited capacity (holds 5~9 items at a time) - rehearsal is required to maintain info in STM

- a chunk is a group of familiar S stored as a single unit - increases the capacity of STM - IBM-CTV-CBC-FBI is easier to recall than IB-MCT-VC-BCF-BI

- sees STM as having a limited capacity and short duration - HOWEVER, sees STM as having more functions, 3 components of working memory a) auditory rehearsal - represents ALL of STM in the original model - is at work when you repeat info to maintain it in STM b) visual-spatial information - allows us to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images c)central executive (manager) - controls deployment of attention - consults with LTM to help make sense of new info

Maintenance rehearsal - serves to keep words alive in STM - but not an effective strategy for transferring info into LTM Elaborative rehearsal - you try to recall info by creating associations - effective ways of transferring info from STM to LTM: create hierarchies, visual imagery, and weaving words into a story Mnemonics - formal memory aids, a specific trick you can use to remember better (high-imagery words>low-imagery words)

High VS low imagery words = concrete VS abstract words High-imagery words - allows 2 ways, the meaning and automatic visual representation ex) book, car, girl Low-imagery words ex) the, if, who, time, truth, mind, kindness Peg word system - rely on peg to remember - peg = something you already know, stable, and relate to something you want to remember Acronym - associations (using first letters to make it easier to remember

- unlimited capacity - info stored indefinitely, maybe even permanently - difficult to substantiate - no convincing evidence to support claims

1. Flashbulb memories (memories with great detail) - memorable & traumatic memories - they fade over time 2. Age-repression through hypnosis - remembering through hypnosis by recalling - problem = nodirect evidence 3. ESB (researcher Panfild)

1. Use elaborative rehearsal --> association effect 2. Use distributed rather than massed practice --> spacing effect 3. Repeatedly test yourself --> testing effect 4. Make the info personally meaningful --> self-referent effect

The deeper the processing the better the long-term retention 1. Shallow processing: the appearance of the word ex) how many letters are in "chair"? 2. Deeper processing: the sound of a word ex) does the word rhyme with "bear"? 3. Deepest processing: the meaning of the word ex) is the word "chair" a verb or noun?

Automatic - implicit/unconscious procedural memory - muscle memory - skills and actions (how to do things) VS Effortful - explicit/conscious declarative memory - episodic memory - factus - your experiences that's tied to time - first kiss - semantic memory - general knowldge - something you have over learned, you just know - color of bills

1. Context-Dependent Memory/Encoding Specifiety Principle - unable to recall because cues used at retrieval and encoding were different (mismatched) from those you used at encoding ex) you used an inappropriate search strategy 2. State-Dependent Memory - mismatch in our mental/physical state at endocing and retrieval - mood-cngruent memory - tendency ro recall expereiences that are consistence with your good/bad mood ex) theoretically, if you listen to the same music while studying and testing --> the background song helps you remember (same environment) 3. Interference - competition from other material (clutter) - studying right before sleeping --> better remembr ex) tip of my tongue

1. Retroactive interference, backward-acting - recently-acquired info interferes with the recall of previously-acquired info, old info that you already know 2. Proactive interference, forward-acting - old/previously-acquired info interferes with the recall of new/recently-acquired info

- the last few words (recency effect) and the first few words (primacy effect) are better recalled than words in the middle Primacy effect reflects the words in LTM Recency effect reflects the words in STM If recall is NOT IMMEDIATE, the recency effect disappears

1. Misinformation Effect - incorporating misleading/wrong info into one's memory of the event 2. Imagination Effect - you repeatedly imagine something that happened then remember it as readl - repeating image so often and vividly that it becomes real for you, remember it as real 3. Source Amnesia - you incorrectly recall the source of the informaion - amnesia = not being able to remember something - you get the facts right, but remember the course, where you got it from 4. Deja Vu - you feel as though you had that experience before - cues unconsciously trigger retrieval of a previsous experience - you process things at conscious level and unconscious level --> similar context with particular cues that were processed at unconscious level

Distortion - when we produce or change on inaccuracies to the material Construction - when we add to info stored in memoey(add extra info), not obly do we encode the info that we saw we also encode that implications

Cognition - refers to mental processes such ad thinking, remembering, predicting, and developing concepts Concept - a grouping of things that has some underlying similarity; a category of related things Prototype - an ideal model or best example of the concept

1. Trial-and-Error - not really a strategy but it can work 2. Insight (ah-ha phenomenon) - the sudden realization of how to solve a problem - often occurs when we reorganize the problem 3. Algorithm - a systematic (step-by-step) method that will guarantee a solution - can be time-consuming 4. Heuristic - uses a "short-cut" - doesn't guarantee a solution but can be more efficient

1. Confirmation Bias - we tend to see only info that supports our presonceptons and ignore infor that contradicts it 2. Fixation - we are stuck / hung up on wrong solutions or are blind to alternatives (place unnecessary restrictions) - we place unnecessary restrictions on our thinking --> can't think out of box 3. Functional Fixedness - we fail to see that an object can have differenct functions or be used in a different way - an example of restricted thinking (fixation) 4. Mental set - we approach a problem the same way as in the past because it worked even if there is a better way - it predisposes us to think in a new say, it "sets us up"

1. Avaliability Heuristic - we assume events are more common than they really are, expecially if they reasily come to mind 2. Overconfidence - we overestimate the accuracy of our judgments and knowledge - when people are more confident even though when they are not right 3. Belief Perseverance - you steadily adhere to you belief even in the face of contradictory evidence - best to make opposition to think the opposite claims to make them agree with you 4. Framing - whether you present info in a positive or nagative way (glass half-full/empty)

Language - consists of symbols that convey meaning and rules for combining symbols 3 Components: 1. Phonemes - smallest distinctive unit of sound - English has 40 phonemes 2. Morphemes - smallest unit of meaning - can be a word or part of a word ex) unfriendly (un friend ly) 3. Grammar - rules that allow us to communicate - Semantics - rules that help us derive meaning from sounds - Syntax - rules for how to order words in a sentence

1. Receptive(receive) Language - 4 month - ability to understand what is being said to them - can distinguish different speech sounds and read lips 2. Productive language - 4~6 months - able to produce words - vocalizations are mostly crying, cooing, and laughing - starts making actual sound, trying to copy adults' sound - afterwars they enter the babbling stage (mostly consonant/vowel pairs ex) dada, mama - 7 month, they can segment sound 3. One-Word Stage - 1~2yrs old - first words are mostly nouns 4. Two-Word Stage - 18 months - consists of verb and noun in correct order ex) want hat, cat sleep

Linguistic Determinism - by Whorf - language determines how we think and how we view the world - however, we CAN have wordless thoughts Language and though interact with one another, language does influence thinking but thinking must influence language or there would never be new words Words may not determine what we think but it may influence what we think

- a standard measure of a sample of behavior 2 Types: 1. Personality Tests - measure traits, attitudes, interests, motives 2. Mental Ability Tests: a) Intelligence Tests - assess general intellectual potential b) Aptitude Tests - assess potential for a specific ability - help predict performance or ability to learn a new skill c) Achievement Tests - assess mastery of what a person has learned - measure previous learning (tests in school)

- mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to a new situation Problem of measuring intelligence - what is defined intelligence differ from country to country

Galton: IQ could be measured by sensory acuity, reaction-time, muscle power - suprior sensory and physical attributes Binet: IQ is reflected by mental abilities - hired to assess students' learning potential in schools - noticed that performance was age-dependent so distinguished between Chronological Age (CA) - actual age, and Mental Age (MA) - performance on a test expressed in years, compared to typical performance at that age.

Intelligence Quotient = MA/CA x 100 Average IQ = 100 MA<CA ---> IQ below than average CA<MA ---> IQ higher than average Problem: makes it appear as though intelligence decreases with age - 30/30 x 100 = 100 BUT 30/60 x 100 = 50 ---> Wechsler got solution = Wechsler's Deviation IQ Score - compare your score to scores of others in the same age group - average performance of any given age groups is set at 100 - determine deviation of your score from 100 (how far from the mean) - normal distribution allows you to see how you compare to others

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory (3) a) Analytic Intelligence - book smarts - assessed by traditional IQ tests - requires convergent thinking b) Creative Intelligence - ability to generate new, unique ideas; inventive - requires divergent thinking c) Practical Intelligence - street smarts - dealing effectively with practical problems/tasks encountered in everyday life Gardner's 8 Intelligences - critics argue that some types represent talents rather than intelligences - linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, natualist, existential intelligence

Before a test is acceptable for public use, it must meet 3 criteria: 1. Standardization - a standardized procedure where original test questions are given to a large group to: a) produce questions that can distinguish people, b) produce a set of norms by which to judge what a person's score means 2. Reliability (consistency in scores) - Test-Retest Reliability - same test given to the same people at 2 differnt times - sometimes alternate forms are used - if scores are consistent, test is reliable 3. Validity - test measures what it's intended to measure a) Content Validity - test items logically represent what they're intended to measure b) Predictive Validity - when the test score is able to predict a related behavior IQ tests are very reliable and are good predictors of academic success

Culture-fair test (<--> Culture-bias test) - equally fair to all cultures/socio-economic groups - some ethnic groups score lower even if the IQ test was designed to be culture-fair, likely due to environmental rather than genetic factors - some groups are more likely raised in poverty and this disadvantage can affect IQ

2 views: 1. IQ reflects a general capacity for reasoning across a variety of tasks - math, language, spatial task abilities come from one common "pool" of intelligence 2. IQ reflects a set of individual/independent abilities and not a general trait - math, language, spatial task abilities come from different pools

- type of statistic that determines which IQ test questions are related. Used to determine which view is correct. Results: Spearman - IQ is a general capacity (g-factor) Thurstone - IQ consists of 7 separate abilities Guilford - IQ consists of 150 separate abilities Johnson - recently confirmed there is a g-factor and it predicts performance on many tasks

Twin Studies - correlation in IQ scores of identical twins is compared to correlation in IQ scores of fraternal twins Results: correlations higher in identical twins (genetic influence) & correlations are higher when menbers of twin paris are raised together than when raised apart (environmental influence) Adoption Studies - correlation in IQ scores of biological parent/child pairs is compared to those of adoptive parent/child pairs Results: correlation is higher in biological parent/child pair (genetic influence) & correlation is higher when the biological parent/child are together than when apart (environmental influence) Problems: very small sample size & different treatment BOTH genetic and environmet plays role

Genetics set the limits/boundaries on IQ and the environment determines where the person falls within these limits Reaction-Range - refers to the genetically-determined limits on IQ (22~25 IQ points) - good concept in theory but not in practive because there's no way of measuring reaction range You cannot be smarter or have lower IQ than what genetics determines * genetics determines the lowest and highest IQ range * the environment determines WHERE is the IQ range within the limit

Heritability of IQ = the extent to which IQ can be attributed to genetics - proportion of variance in IQ that can be attributed to genetics - believed to be between 50~80%

- performance on IQ tests has steadily increased over generations suggesting the influence of the environment - suggesting that environment is an important factor while gene could not have change that much and quickly

- the study of things that put us in motion, pushing us towards some things and away from others 2 Components: a) drive or arousal(energy) b) goal-directed behavior

1) Freud - life and death instincts motivate and direct behavior 2) Instinct Theory - an innate tendency to behave in a fized way to certain stimuli (fized action patterns) - fails to explain most human motivaes but, as evolutionary psychology proposes, genes can predispose some behaviors 3) Drive-Reduction Theory - physiological needs/deficiencies create internal arousal and we are motivated to reduce that drive by satisfying that need by maintaining homeostasis to a balanced internal state - Probability of R = Drive + Habit Strength - don't take incentives(learned value of positive or negative external stimuli that motivate behavior) into account Drive theories - explain how internal states push us outward and emphasize homeostasis to be 0 Incentive theories - explain how external S pull or repel us and emphasize environmental factors 4) Optimal Level of Arousal Theory - drive-reduction theory argues that we always want to reduce drive or arousal; we seek an optimal (just right) level of arousal

- Maslow believed that we are motivated to fulfill needs that are inborn and that are prioritized according to this hierarchy - needs at the bottom are the strongest and must be fulfilled before we are motivated to fultill those higher ones 2 types of motive: Growth motive - even when there isn't deficiency, we are motivated to develop beyond our present condition to become a better version = self-actualization needs ~ self-transcedence needs Deficiency motive = physiological needs ~ esteem needs - we are motivated to remove deficiency/discomfort

- provides an answer for why some are motivated to engage in risky behavior - believes this is due to genetic predisposition (influenced by Eysenck) - argues that people with naturally low levels of arousal are motivate to seek sensations to elevate their arousal to a more optimal level (opposite is true for people with naturally high levels of arousal) - devised the Sensation-Seeking Scale to measure this tendency Extroverts have a low level of arousal - need to increase by hanging out Introverts have a high natural level of arousal - need to decrease, don't want situation that can increase arousal

a) thrill and adventure seeking (physical risky activities) b) experience seeking (want varied experienes such as travelling) c) uninhibited and prone to heavy drinking, drug use, gambling d) susceptibility to boredom (low tolerance for routine but more tolerance for stress They have difficulty in school & drinking problem & more likely to commit crime

2 Types of Motives: a) Approach Motive - reward to be gained by approaching goal b) Avoidance Motive - to want to avoid the goal becuase it's unpleasant Conflicts: - there are 2 or more competing motives - 2 incompatible responses exist simultaneously but both cannot be satisfied 1) Approach-Approach - 2 positive goals exist and you must choose betwen both desirable choices - best conflict to have because either one has positive end 2) Avoidance-Avoidance - 2 negative goals exist and you must choose between both undesirable choices - difficult to resolve and you want to just avoid making the choice 3) Approach-Avoidance - one end goal has both positive and negative aspects

- motivation and emotion are typically sidcussed together because they are intricately related - emotions often motivate behavior - emotions are produced when goals are blosked - we are motivated to behave in a way that will produce desirable emotions 3 components: 1. conscious experience such as thoughts or feelings 2. physiological changes or arousal 3. overt, expressive behaviors (body language, facial expression, voice intonation)

- several are believed to be innate (happiness, dasness, fear disgust, anger, and surprise) Evidence: - they are expressed similarly across cultures - people born bilnd use these same expressions

People tend to place "emotional experience" along 2 dimensiont: a)valence: either positive & negative / pleasant & unpleasant b) arousal wither high & low / strong & weak Any emotion is some combination of feeling either good or bad and feeling the emotion with a certain degree of intensity

Psychologists have been trying to figure out whether bodily arousal comes before or after emotional feelings and whether cognition plays a role in our experience of emotion Commonsense: Stimules --> Conscious feeling --> Automatic arousal " I tremble because I fell afraid" James-Lang Theory Connon-Bard Theory Schachter and Singer 2-factor Theory Zajonc/LeDoux and Lazarus Theory

- bodily arousal prevedes the emotion - a stimulus triggers a particular pattern of bodily arousal and we interpret the particular patter/configuration to help us experience and label our emotion "I am afraid because I'm tremblin"

- bodily arousal and emotion occur independently and simultaneously - we don't use physiological feedback to help label our emotion - "The dog makes me tremble AND I feel afraid"

- bodily arousal and our conscious interpretation together lead to our emotional experience - we look to the environmnt for clues to help us interpret our bodily arousal - "I label my trembling as fear because I see a scary dog and appraise the situation as being dangerous"

Zajonc/LeDoux - cognitive appraisal may not precede or be necessary for an emotional experience Lazarus - similar to Schachter but argues appraisal can be unconsicous

Arousal can spill over from one event to another ex) hearing someone got lottery --> you get bodily arousal = arousal is spilling over