Introduction to Linguistics

88問 • 1年前

問題一覧

They believe that by describing the observable and verifiable features of the language, one can learn it.

Structuralist

Language is a system of systems

Structuralist

Language is arbitrary or absolute. The meanings of a language's words and the concepts they express are not innately related to one another.

Structuralist

Language is a means or an important tool of communication.

Structuralist

Language is primarily vocal where speech is the fundamental language medium while writing is merely a supplementary way to convey language.

Structuralist

Language is a mental phenomenon

Cognitivist / Transformationalist

Language is innate.

Cognitivist / Transformationalist

Every normal child has a language acquisition device (LAD) in their brains. They are predisposed to learning their first language in a very short period — roughly five yrs after birth

Cognitivist / Transformationalist

Language is a dynamic mechanism for information exchange among speech community members.

Functionalist

Language serves as a platform for expression of emotions, persuasion, information gathering and dissemination, and the incitement of others to act in a certain way.

Functionalist

Perspective on language that places more emphasis on its meaning and usage rather than its grammar and structure related components

Functionalist

Derives from general theory of learning which claims that an individual's language behavior is influenced by sequences of varied incentive in his or her environment.

Behaviorist

A process of habit building where language is seen as both mechanical and human activity

Behaviorist

Language is learned through reinforcement

Behaviorist

Language is learned through repetition

Behaviorist

Krashen's Monitor Model hypothesis where it is the subconscious process that result feom informal, natural communication between people where language is a means, not a focus nor an end.

Language Acquisition

it parallels first language development in children

Language Acquisition

It is where the conscious thinking about the rules in language is said to occur

Language Learning

Krashen's Monitor Model hypothesis where it is the conscious process of knowing about language and being able to talk about it. Traditionally involves grammar and vocabulary learning.

Language Learning

It approximates the formal teaching of grammar in classrooms

Language Learning

It is where the unconscious feeling about what is correct and appropriate in language occurs

Language Acquisition

According to Krashen, learners acquire grammatical features when exposed to them beyond their current level (i.e., I + 1).

input hypothesis

Both children and adults acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, that is, certain structures are acquired before others, regardless of the language used.

natural order hypothesis

Language performance is normally preceded by the monitor. Editing may occur before or after the natural output.

monitor hypothesis

occurs when there is sufficient time when pressure exists to convey meaning correctly, and when appropriate rules are in place.

monitor hypothesis

The filter consists of attitude to language, motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Thus, learners with favorable attitudes and self- confidence may have a 'low filter' which promotes language learning.

affective filter hypothesis

The study of the sound system of language: the rules that govern pronunciation.

Phonology

It comprises the elements and principles that determine sound patterns in a language.

Phonology

The study of language at the level of sounds: how sounds are articulated by the human speech mechanism and received by the auditory mechanism, as well as how sounds can be distinguished and characterized by the way they are produced.

Phonetics

The study of word formation; It deals with the internal structure of words.

Morphology

It also studies the changes that take place in the structure of words, e.g., the word 'go' changes to 'went' and 'gone' to signify changes in tense and aspect.

Morphology

The study of the way phrases, clauses, and sentences are constructed. It is the system of rules and categories that underlies sentence formation.

Syntax

it involves the description of rules and positioning of elements in the sentence such as noun phrases, verb phrases, adverbial phrases, etc.

Syntax

It addresses the degree of linguistic meaning and explains how words and sentences have meaning.

Semantics

It tries to understand how words are related to one another in terms of meaning, for example, and how these links might be demonstrated by creating 'categories'.

Semantics

It addresses the contextual elements of meaning in certain circumstances.

Pragmatics

This study focuses on how language is applied in everyday conversation. In contrast to the study of sentences, it considers utterances, or rhe sentences that speakers of a language say or utter.

Pragmatics

It is the study of linguistic units that are longer than a sentence.

Discourse

At this level, the connections between sentences that give a text coherence or connection are examined.

Discourse

is a distinctive, contrasted sound unit, e.g.,/m/,/æ/,/n/. These distinct sounds enter combination with other sounds to form words, e.g.,/mæn/'man'.

Phoneme

It is the smallest unit of sound of any language that causes a difference in meaning. It is a phone segment that has a contrastive status

Phonemes

consists of two forms with distinct meanings that differ by only one segment found in the same position in each form.

minimal pair

are variants or other ways of producing a phoneme. They are phonetically similar and are frequently found in complementary distribution

Allophones

An example of it is the systematic variations of /t/ which are: The /t/ in the top is aspirated [th]; the /t/ in stop is released [t]; the /t/ in the pot is unreleased.

Allophones

are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth. The airflow is either blocked momentarily or restricted so much that noise is produced as air flows past the constriction.

Consonant Sounds

('two' + 'lips') The primary constriction is at the lips (/p,b,m,w/)

Bilabial

('lip' + 'teeth') The The primary constriction is between the lower lip and the upper teeth. (/ f ,v/)

Labiodental

('between' + 'teeth') The primary constriction is between the tongue and the upper teeth. (d) Alveolar (from alveolar ridge). The primary constriction is between the tongue and the alveolar ridge (/t,d,s,z,n,l/).

Interdental

The primary constriction is between the tongue and the palate (/s,z,c,j,r,y/)

Palatal

The primary constriction is between the tongue and the velum (/ k ,g, n/)

Velar

the space between the vocal cords. The primary constriction is at the glottis (/ h /)

Glottal

two articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, etc.) are brought together such that the flow of air through the vocal tract is completely blocked (/p,b,t,d,k,g/).

Stops

two articulators are brought near each other such that the flow of air is impeded but not completely blocked. The airflow through the narrow opening creates friction

Fricatives

articulations that begin like stops (with a complete closure in the vocal tract) and end like fricatives (with a narrow opening in the vocal tract) (/č,j/). Because they can be described as a stop + fricative, some phonemic alphabets transcribe /č/ as /ts/ and /J/ as /dz/.

Affricates

an articulation in which the airflow through the mouth is completely blocked but the velum is lowered, forcing the air through the nose (/m,n,n/).

Nasals

describe articulations that are mid-way between true consonants (i.e., stops, fricatives, affricates, and nasals) and vowels, although they are both generally classified as consonants.

Liquids and Glides

production in the vocal tract is normally unhindered, and they are voiced. The following physical attributes are used to describe them: tongue height, frontness, lip rounding, and tenseness.

Vowels

are prosodic (rhythmic) characteristics that all sounds have, regardless of where or how they are spoken. Pitch, intonation, stress, and junction are these characteristics. They differ in terms of time, pitch, and intensity.

Suprasegmentals

It is a phrase used to describe a combination of pitch, loudness, and duration that produces vowel prominence. One can alter the pitch (often by raising it), make the syllable louder, or lengthen it to create a stressed syllable.

Stress

refers to the syllable that experiences the most noticeable stress.

Primary stress

it is the characteristic of a sound that allows us to classify on a scale from low to high.

Pitch

The melodic pattern of an utterance as described in phonetics. It can convey a variety of emotive meanings, such as surprise, rage, or happiness, as well as perform grammatical duties. Variations in the voice's pitch are the main factor

Intonation

pauses or breaks between syllables.

Junctures

it is a word or a word's component with meaning, cannot be broken down into more manageable meaningful pieces without losing its significance or leaving behind meaningless leftovers and appears repeatedly in several terms, and has adependable meaning. The word unhappiness has 3: (un-), (friend), (-ly) while the word friend is a single ______.

Morpheme

are the variations or different forms a morpheme can take without changing its meaning. These variations occur due to phonological or contextual reasons.

Allomorphs

those that can stand on their own as independent words-e.g. (view) in review and (like) in unlike; they can also occur in isolation.

Free Morphemes

those that cannot stand on their own as independent words; they need to be attached to a free morpheme or a free form-e.g. (re-), and (un-) they are commonly called affix.

Bound morphemes

added to root morphemes to derive new words. e.g. loyal + ty = loyalty dis + comfort = discomfort

Derivational Morphemes

are bound morphemes added to a base or root word to indicate grammatical features such as tense, number, aspect, case, or comparison. They do not change the word's core meaning or its word class. Example: In the word walked, the -ed suffix is indicating past tense. In dogs, the -s is indicating plural.

Inflectional Morphemes

a characteristic of a word that has more than one possible meaning. Example: "Bank" "I need to go to the bank." (This could mean a financial institution or the side of a river.)

Lexical Ambiguity

a characteristic of a sentence that has more than one meaning. Example: "The chicken is ready to eat." (This could mean the chicken is prepared as food or the chicken is hungry and ready to eat.)

Syntactic Ambiguity

words having the same idea (e.g., big, and large, small, and tiny, beautiful, and lovely)

Synonymy

two words which are different in form and in meaning (e.g., hot and cold, black and white, boiling and freezing)

Antonymy

word or a phrase that has its meaning included within another word; the contained word is also known as the superordinate (e.g., laptop contains the meaning of computer, therefore, laptop is a hyponym of the superordinate computer)

Hyponymy

a sense relation in words with the same phonetic form but different in meaning (e.g., bow 'to bend forward to show respect' or 'a weapon that shoots arrows')

Homonymy

a linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression (e.g., The earthquake killed hundreds of thousands of people in Haiti. It was devastating.) The word 'It' is used anaphorically to refer to 'the earthquake'

Anaphora

involves words or phrases that cannot be fully understood without additional contextual information. Its expressions rely on the speaker’s or listener’s physical or temporal context. E.g. Words like *here*, *there*, *now*, *you*, and *I* are deictic, because their meaning shifts depending on who is speaking, where they are, or when they are speaking.

Deixis

theory that explains how certain members of a category are cognitively more representative than others. Example: A *robin* might be a _______ of the category *bird*, while an *ostrich* is a less typical example, though still a member of the same category.

Prototype

a relationship between sentences in which a first sentence will be true if other sentences are true; implication or deduction; and called paraphrase.

Entailment

Two or more expressions refer to just one person or thing.

Conference

the act of saying something which has literal meaning. Concerned with meaning of the speaker's utterance. Traugott and Patt (1980:229) defined this act as the act of producing a recognizable grammatical utterance in the language.

Locutionary Acts

is performed in uttering certain words in given context and its interpretation is concerned with force. Coulthard (1977:19) stresses that this act is potentially under the control of its speaker. Traugott and Pratt (1980:229) view this act as the attempt to accomplish some communicative purposes such as promising, warning, arguing, announcing a verdict, betting, warning, making appointment, etc. Fraser (1983:35-44) states that we are linguistically communicating when we perform this act.

Illocutionary Acts

Coulthard (1977:18-19) and Pratt (1977:81) define this act as performed because of the locutionary and illocutionary acts, causing a change in the mind of listener so that he becomes 'alarmed', 'convinced', 'deterred', etc. (Coulthard 1977:18-19; Pratt 1977:81).

Perlocutionary Acts

illocutionary acts that undertake to represent situation, whether past, present, future or hypothetical, e.g., predicting, telling, insisting, suggesting, or swearing that something is the case.

Representatives

illocutionary acts designed to get the addressee to do something, e.g., requesting, commanding, ordering, pleading, inviting, daring, and challenging.

Directive

illocutionary acts that commit the speaker to doing something e.g., promising, threatening, vowing, and offering.

Commissives

illocutionary acts that express only the speaker's psychological state, e.g., congratulating, thanking, deploring, condoling, welcoming and apologizing.

Expressives

illocutionary acts that bring about the situation they refer to, e.g., blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing sentence.

Declaration

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問題一覧

They believe that by describing the observable and verifiable features of the language, one can learn it.

Structuralist

Language is a system of systems

Structuralist

Language is arbitrary or absolute. The meanings of a language's words and the concepts they express are not innately related to one another.

Structuralist

Language is a means or an important tool of communication.

Structuralist

Language is primarily vocal where speech is the fundamental language medium while writing is merely a supplementary way to convey language.

Structuralist

Language is a mental phenomenon

Cognitivist / Transformationalist

Language is innate.

Cognitivist / Transformationalist

Every normal child has a language acquisition device (LAD) in their brains. They are predisposed to learning their first language in a very short period — roughly five yrs after birth

Cognitivist / Transformationalist

Language is a dynamic mechanism for information exchange among speech community members.

Functionalist

Language serves as a platform for expression of emotions, persuasion, information gathering and dissemination, and the incitement of others to act in a certain way.

Functionalist

Perspective on language that places more emphasis on its meaning and usage rather than its grammar and structure related components

Functionalist

Derives from general theory of learning which claims that an individual's language behavior is influenced by sequences of varied incentive in his or her environment.

Behaviorist

A process of habit building where language is seen as both mechanical and human activity

Behaviorist

Language is learned through reinforcement

Behaviorist

Language is learned through repetition

Behaviorist

Krashen's Monitor Model hypothesis where it is the subconscious process that result feom informal, natural communication between people where language is a means, not a focus nor an end.

Language Acquisition

it parallels first language development in children

Language Acquisition

It is where the conscious thinking about the rules in language is said to occur

Language Learning

Krashen's Monitor Model hypothesis where it is the conscious process of knowing about language and being able to talk about it. Traditionally involves grammar and vocabulary learning.

Language Learning

It approximates the formal teaching of grammar in classrooms

Language Learning

It is where the unconscious feeling about what is correct and appropriate in language occurs

Language Acquisition

According to Krashen, learners acquire grammatical features when exposed to them beyond their current level (i.e., I + 1).

input hypothesis

Both children and adults acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, that is, certain structures are acquired before others, regardless of the language used.

natural order hypothesis

Language performance is normally preceded by the monitor. Editing may occur before or after the natural output.

monitor hypothesis

occurs when there is sufficient time when pressure exists to convey meaning correctly, and when appropriate rules are in place.

monitor hypothesis

affective filter hypothesis

The study of the sound system of language: the rules that govern pronunciation.

Phonology

It comprises the elements and principles that determine sound patterns in a language.

Phonology

Phonetics

The study of word formation; It deals with the internal structure of words.

Morphology

It also studies the changes that take place in the structure of words, e.g., the word 'go' changes to 'went' and 'gone' to signify changes in tense and aspect.

Morphology

The study of the way phrases, clauses, and sentences are constructed. It is the system of rules and categories that underlies sentence formation.

Syntax

it involves the description of rules and positioning of elements in the sentence such as noun phrases, verb phrases, adverbial phrases, etc.

Syntax

It addresses the degree of linguistic meaning and explains how words and sentences have meaning.

Semantics

It tries to understand how words are related to one another in terms of meaning, for example, and how these links might be demonstrated by creating 'categories'.

Semantics

It addresses the contextual elements of meaning in certain circumstances.

Pragmatics

This study focuses on how language is applied in everyday conversation. In contrast to the study of sentences, it considers utterances, or rhe sentences that speakers of a language say or utter.

Pragmatics

It is the study of linguistic units that are longer than a sentence.

Discourse

At this level, the connections between sentences that give a text coherence or connection are examined.

Discourse

is a distinctive, contrasted sound unit, e.g.,/m/,/æ/,/n/. These distinct sounds enter combination with other sounds to form words, e.g.,/mæn/'man'.

Phoneme

It is the smallest unit of sound of any language that causes a difference in meaning. It is a phone segment that has a contrastive status

Phonemes

consists of two forms with distinct meanings that differ by only one segment found in the same position in each form.

minimal pair

are variants or other ways of producing a phoneme. They are phonetically similar and are frequently found in complementary distribution

Allophones

An example of it is the systematic variations of /t/ which are: The /t/ in the top is aspirated [th]; the /t/ in stop is released [t]; the /t/ in the pot is unreleased.

Allophones

Consonant Sounds

('two' + 'lips') The primary constriction is at the lips (/p,b,m,w/)

Bilabial

('lip' + 'teeth') The The primary constriction is between the lower lip and the upper teeth. (/ f ,v/)

Labiodental

Interdental

The primary constriction is between the tongue and the palate (/s,z,c,j,r,y/)

Palatal

The primary constriction is between the tongue and the velum (/ k ,g, n/)

Velar

the space between the vocal cords. The primary constriction is at the glottis (/ h /)

Glottal

two articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, etc.) are brought together such that the flow of air through the vocal tract is completely blocked (/p,b,t,d,k,g/).

Stops

two articulators are brought near each other such that the flow of air is impeded but not completely blocked. The airflow through the narrow opening creates friction

Fricatives

Affricates

an articulation in which the airflow through the mouth is completely blocked but the velum is lowered, forcing the air through the nose (/m,n,n/).

Nasals

describe articulations that are mid-way between true consonants (i.e., stops, fricatives, affricates, and nasals) and vowels, although they are both generally classified as consonants.

Liquids and Glides

production in the vocal tract is normally unhindered, and they are voiced. The following physical attributes are used to describe them: tongue height, frontness, lip rounding, and tenseness.

Vowels

Suprasegmentals

Stress

refers to the syllable that experiences the most noticeable stress.

Primary stress

it is the characteristic of a sound that allows us to classify on a scale from low to high.

Pitch

Intonation

pauses or breaks between syllables.

Junctures

Morpheme

are the variations or different forms a morpheme can take without changing its meaning. These variations occur due to phonological or contextual reasons.

Allomorphs

those that can stand on their own as independent words-e.g. (view) in review and (like) in unlike; they can also occur in isolation.

Free Morphemes

those that cannot stand on their own as independent words; they need to be attached to a free morpheme or a free form-e.g. (re-), and (un-) they are commonly called affix.

Bound morphemes

added to root morphemes to derive new words. e.g. loyal + ty = loyalty dis + comfort = discomfort

Derivational Morphemes

Inflectional Morphemes

a characteristic of a word that has more than one possible meaning. Example: "Bank" "I need to go to the bank." (This could mean a financial institution or the side of a river.)

Lexical Ambiguity

a characteristic of a sentence that has more than one meaning. Example: "The chicken is ready to eat." (This could mean the chicken is prepared as food or the chicken is hungry and ready to eat.)

Syntactic Ambiguity

words having the same idea (e.g., big, and large, small, and tiny, beautiful, and lovely)

Synonymy

two words which are different in form and in meaning (e.g., hot and cold, black and white, boiling and freezing)

Antonymy

Hyponymy

a sense relation in words with the same phonetic form but different in meaning (e.g., bow 'to bend forward to show respect' or 'a weapon that shoots arrows')

Homonymy

Anaphora

Deixis

Prototype

a relationship between sentences in which a first sentence will be true if other sentences are true; implication or deduction; and called paraphrase.

Entailment

Two or more expressions refer to just one person or thing.

Conference

Locutionary Acts

Illocutionary Acts

Perlocutionary Acts

illocutionary acts that undertake to represent situation, whether past, present, future or hypothetical, e.g., predicting, telling, insisting, suggesting, or swearing that something is the case.

Representatives

illocutionary acts designed to get the addressee to do something, e.g., requesting, commanding, ordering, pleading, inviting, daring, and challenging.

Directive

illocutionary acts that commit the speaker to doing something e.g., promising, threatening, vowing, and offering.

Commissives

illocutionary acts that express only the speaker's psychological state, e.g., congratulating, thanking, deploring, condoling, welcoming and apologizing.

Expressives

illocutionary acts that bring about the situation they refer to, e.g., blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing sentence.

Declaration