from agrarian to industrial economy

oldest known urban center

cities serve a wide surrounding area

consists of a core of census blocks that have a population density of at least 1,000 people per sq mile and surrounding blocks that have an overall density of at least 500 people per sq mile

examines ecological structure and function of habitats and organisms within cities. Focus on abiotic environment, soils, plants, animals, etc. Emerges from the natural sciences

increase in marriages, decreases in age at time of marriage, overall decrease in mortality

have 4 characteristics; large population size, high population density, permanence, social heterogeneity

Karin 1968, suburban job opportunities located far from central-city, low income housing

tall buildings, narrow streets, increases wind velocity, alters wind direction, greater friction, greater turbulence, closely-spaced buildings act as a unit; air moves above them but stagnates in between them, air pollution accumulates.

crowding, disease, pollution, conflicts with wildlife

low density, car dependent communities away from central urban areas.

analyzes entire metropolitan areas from an ecological perspective. Must include the outlying, less populated areas because of reciprocal fluxes of materials, energy, etc. emerges from urban planning.

was the first city to reach 1 million inhabitants