問題一覧
1
is the study of the etiology or causes of victimization, its consequences, how the criminal justice system accommodates and assists victims, and how other elements of society, such as media, deal with crime victims
Victimology
2
it comes for the Latin word victima and historically referred to any living being (human or animal) that was to be slaughtered or used in sacrifice to please a deity
Victim
3
this term includes all people who suffer harm or loss by accident, natural disasters, or war
general point of view
4
this definition includes any harm or loss attributable to the action of an individual, group, or organization that can affect a person
legal perspective
5
is "anyone who is injured or killed due to a violation of the criminal law." Thus, anyone can suffer from one form of crime or another. Therefore, we are all potential victims.
crime victim
6
-When the costs of goods taken during property crimes is added to productivity losses caused by injury, pain, and emotional trauma, the cost of victimization is estimated to be in the hundreds of billions of dollars.
-It also includes system cost with regards to maintaining the justice system and those cost that assist victims of juvenile violence, such as medical treatment for injuries and services for victims.
Economic Loss
7
-The suffering endured by crime victims does not end when their attacker leaves the scene of the crime. They may suffer more victimization by the justice system. While the crime is still fresh in their minds, victims may find that the police interrogation following the crime is handled callously, with innuendos or insinuations that they were somehow at fault. Victims have difficulty learning what is going on in the case; property is often kept for a long time as evidence and may never be returned.
-The system can be especially harsh on rape victims, some of whom report that the treatment they receive from legal, medical, and mental health services is so destructive that they cannot help feeling "re-raped."
System Abuse
8
Victims may suffer stress and anxiety long after the incident is over, and the justice process has been completed. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - a condition whose symptoms include depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior is a common problem especially when the victim does not receive adequate support from family and friends.
Long Term Stress
9
-Many people fear crime, especially the elderly, the poor, and minority group members. Their fear is escalated by lurid news accounts of crime and violence. While hearing about crime causes fear, those who experience it are even more likely to be fearful and change their behaviors.
-Victims of violent crime are the most deeply affected, fearing a repeat of their attack. Many go through a fundamental life change, viewing the world more suspiciously and as a less safe, controllable, and meaningful place.
Fear and Trauma
10
-There is growing evidence of a correlation between crime and victimization. Kids who are victims share many of the same characteristics as those who are delinquent, such as antisocial behavior tendencies and impulsive personalities.
-Victims may seek revenge against the people who harmed them or who they believe are at fault for their problems. In some cases, these feelings become generalized to others who share the same characteristics of their attackers.
Antisocial Behavior
11
-was a period of time, in which "the individual made the law, and he was the victim, the prosecutor, and the judge."
-The victims had to deal with the offenders because there were no authorities to enforce the law.
-The victim was presumed to be innocent and passive.
Golden Age or "victim justice system"
12
has been described as a "criminal-oriented justice system," where offenses were not considered as being perpetrated against the victims or their relatives but against the law of the king or state.
The Dark Age
13
-The early part of the mid-20th century (1940s) saw the “rediscovery" of victims and victims' rights being initiated by an emerging scholarly interest in the victim- offender relationship.
-After being focused for so long on the criminal, people started to study the dyad of the victim-offender to better understand the role of the victim during the criminal act.
Reemergence of the Victim
14
Has its roots in the early religious notions of suffering, sacrifice and death. This concept of "___" was well known in the ancient civilizations, especially in Babylonia, Palestine, Greece, and Rome. In each of these civilizations the law mandated that the victim should be recognized as a person who deserved to be made whole again by the offender.
Victim
15
Is a person who has been physically, financially, or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone committing a crime.
Crime Victim
16
Refers to the origin or cause of a victimization; the constellation of variables which caused a victimization to occur.
Victimogenesis
17
A victimization where the victim causes, in part or totally, their own victimization.
Victim Precipitation
18
It is a physical, psychological, social, material or financial condition whereby a person or an object has a weakness which could render them a victim if another person or persons would recognize these weaknesses and take advantage of them.
Vulnerability
19
It is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone, an event, an organization or a natural phenomenon.
General Victim
20
Refers to an event where persons, communities and institutions are damaged or injured in a significant way. Those persons who are impacted by persons or events suffer a violation of rights or significant disruption of their well - being.
Victimization
21
It is an academic scientific discipline which studies data that describes phenomena and causal relationships related to victimizations. This includes events leading to the victimization, the victim's experience, its aftermath and the actions taken by society in response to these victimizations.
Victimology
22
It is the violation of a national or international standard in the use of organized powerful forces such that persons are injured physically, mentally, emotionally, economically, or in their rights, as a direct and intentional result of the misapplication of these forces.
Abuse of power
23
Are those activities which are applied in response to victimizations with the intention of relieving suffering and facilitating recovery. This includes offering information, assessments, individual interventions, case advocacy, system advocacy, public policy, and programmed development.
Victim Assistance, Support or Services
24
-It is the resumption of the same or better level of functionality as was enjoyed prior to victimization.
-Persons who have been victimized vary in their level of mental health and wellbeing prior to their victimization.
Victim Recovery
25
- It is the intentional application of sexual, physical, emotional, or psychological injury to a child to include neglect at the hands of her or his parents or care-provider within the confines of their family or place of care.
Child Abuse
26
It is a formal process for face-to-face meetings in the presence of a trained mediator between a victim of a crime and his/her offender who committed that crime.
Victim Offender Mediation
27
It is a systematic formal legal response to crime victimization that emphasizes healing the injuries that resulted from the crime and affected the victims, offenders, and communities. This process is a departure from the traditional retributive form of dealing with criminals and victims which traditionally have generally perpetuated the conflict which resulted in the original crime.
Restorative Justice
28
- It includes emotional and physical experiences that produce pain and injuries. Emotional injury is a normal response to an extremely abnormal event. It results from the pairing of a painful or frightening emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge and have a long-lasting effect on the life of a person. The more direct the exposure to the traumatic event, the higher the risk for emotional harm and prolonged effects.
Victim Trauma
29
It is the provision of emergency psychological care to traumatized victims so as to help them return to an adaptive level of functioning and to prevent or mitigate the negative impact of psychological and emotional trauma.
Crisis Intervention
30
It is a formal administrative procedure provided by law which provides only money to victims for
"out of pocket" real expenses directly resulting from the victimization to be paid by the state after the victim is found
to qualify according to specific criteria determined by the respective state or federal law.
Compensation
31
It is a formal judicial procedure used by a Judge after guilt is determined as part of a sentence which can provide money and/or services to the victim for damages or suffering which resulted from the victimization to be paid or performed by the offender.
Restitution
32
- It is a periodic data collection and analysis process conducted usually by a government entity within the general population to study information about crime victims regardless of whether they reported their victimization to the police or not.
- It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview (or sent questionnaire) and covers demographics, attitudes about crime and details about the victimizations experienced over the previous six months.
Victim Survey
33
Are privileges and procedures required by written law which guarantee victims specific considerations and treatment by the criminal justice system, the government, and the community at large.
Victim Rights
34
The study of violent crime victims for the purposes of addressing investigative and forensic questions. It involves the accurate, critical, and objective outlining of a victim's lifestyles and circumstances, the events leading up to an injury, and the precise nature of any harm or loss suffered
Forensic Victimology
35
The belief that victims are inherently good, honest, and pure, making those who defend them righteous and morally justified.
Sanctity of Victimhood
36
Individuals who share a capacity for being victimized.
Victim Prone
37
It is considered one of the first systematic theories to explain criminal victimization.
According to Siegel (2010), "the basis of lifestyle exposure is that crime is not a random occurrence but rather a function of the victim's lifestyle."
The Lifestyle - Exposure Theory
38
Inspired by the lifestyle theory, Cohen and Felson (1979) developed this theory after observing an increase in crime rates, such as robbery, aggravated assault, forcible rape, and homicide, while the social trends and economic conditions in the United States were generally stable.
Routine Activity Theory
39
Maintains that some people instigate or initiate a particular confrontation that may in the end lead to that person becoming victimized by injury or death. There are two types of precipitation i.e. active or passive. Active precipitation occurs when the victim deliberately acts in a provocative manner, uses abusive words, or threats, or even attacks first.
Victim Precipitation Theory
40
This theory holds that victims do not motivate crime but rather are more likely to become victims due to the fact they live in social areas that are disorganized and contain high-crime rates and therefore have the highest risk of coming into contact with criminals regardless of their lifestyle or behavior.
Deviant Place Theory
41
It is defined as the extent to which a victim is responsible for his or her own victimization. The concept is rooted on the notion that, although some victims are not at all responsible for their victimization, other victims are.
Victim Precipitation
42
This occurs when a victim unintentionally makes it easier for an offender to commit a crime. A victim may, in this way, be a catalyst for victimization. For example, a woman who accidentally left her purse in plain view in her office while she went to the restroom and then had it stolen would be a victim who facilitated her own victimization.
Victim Facilitation
43
This occurs when a person does something that incites another person to commit an illegal.
Provocation suggests that without the victim's behavior, the crime would have not occurred. Provocation, then, most certainly connotes blame. In fact, the offender is not at all responsible.
-For example, if a person attempted to mug a man a who was walking home from work and the man, instead of willingly giving the offender his wallet, pulled out a gun and shot the mugger.
-The offender in this scenario ultimately is a victim, but he would not have been shot if not for attempting to mug the shooter.
Victim provocation
44
It is the attitude which suggests that the victim rather than the perpetrator bears responsibility for the assault. It occurs when it is assumed that an individual did something to provoke the violence by actions, words, or dress.
Victim Blaming
45
was posited by Shaver in 1970 and argues that when an individual is confronted with the seemingly whimsical victimization of another person, they become threatened by the realization that such random misfortunes could also happen to them. The forced acknowledgment of the potential for such an experience then results in a negative emotional response that initiates a cognitive coping strategy to meet the need for self-preservation, and a sense of security, predictability, and personal control.
Defensive Attribution Theory
46
is a form of DAT that was first introduced by Lerner in 1965. According to Lerner and Miller (1978), the JWT argues that individuals have a need to believe that they live in a world where people generally get what they deserve.
The belief that the world is just enables the individual to confront his physical and social environment as though they were stable and orderly.
Just World Hypothesis
47
Claims that those who subscribe to the theory blame victims as a means to protect their own feelings of invulnerability.
Invulnerability Theory
48
The homicide literature is the first place in which the notion of victim blaming appears when Wolfgang introduced the term victim-precipitated homicide. The term victim-precipitated homicide is applied to those criminal homicides in which the victim is direct, positive precipitator in the crime.
Victim Blaming in Homicide
49
Rape myths are prominent in the literature. Plenty of myths about victims' culpability and theories have been developed to blame the victims.
Victim Blaming in Sexual Assault
50
This is a myth long held despite the evidence indicating that across developed countries men account for around 10% of victims. According to the myth,
"a man should be able to fight back or escape the attacker and is therefore more to blame if raped"
Men cannot be raped
51
Belief in this myth belies an utter ignorance of the common responses to rape that may be exhibited by the victim. Indeed, some victims may choose to fight back violently, even to the point of their own death. That is one end of the spectrum. Other victims may choose to simply acquiesce, whereas other may be incapable of any deliberate response. It all depends on the victim's individual personality, capability, and experiences.
There is no rape if the victim did not resist.
52
Women victims are too often blamed for being provocative, seductive, suggestive, for proposing, teasing, or just plain
"asking for it". Men in this myth are seen as helplessly lusty, sexually frustrated beings, responding to sexually provocative women.
The victim has been in some way seductive or provocative.
53
They include women or men who cannot be raped because of their lifestyle or because of their relationship with the accused. Because of whom they are or because of how they live, they have somehow given up the right to refuse sexual access to themselves or they are somehow deserving of rape and therefore do not require the beneft of justice.
These include prostitutes (and other sex industry workers), those who live or dress promiscuously, and the intimate partners of the accused, especially their wives.
The "unrapable" victims.
54
Stalking is a course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to feel fear. Victims of stalking, particularly those of stalkers who were, at one time, an intimate partner, are routinely held responsible, judged, and not taken seriously.
Victim Blaming in Stalking
55
Myths of domestic violence often stereotype the victim as the "battered woman" who is small, fragile, and haggard.
Victims are perceived as having limited options, no external skills or personal attributes that can relay control and choice, and are therefore economically dependent on the perpetrator.
Victim Blaming in Domestic Violence
56
it affects victimization risk. Males are more likely than females to be the victims of violent crime. Men are almost twice as likely as women to experience robbery and 50 percent more likely to be the victim of assault; women are much more likely than men to be victims of rape or sexual assault.
Gender
57
Victim data reveal that young people face a much greater victimization risk than do older people., Victim risk diminishes rapidly after age 25 and becomes negligible after age 65.
Age
58
The poor are also the most likely victims of violent and property crime. For example, homeless people, who are among the poorest individuals suffer very high rates of assault. This association occurs across all gender, age, and racial groups. Although the poor are more likely to suffer violent crimes, the wealthy are more likely targets of personal theft crimes such as pocket picking and purse snatching. Perhaps the affluent sporting more expensive attire and driving better cars attract the attention of thieves.
Social Status
59
also influences victimization risk.
Never-married males and females are victimized more often than married people. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk. This association between marital status and victimization is probably influenced by age, gender, and lifestyle
Marital Status
60
African Americans are more likely than whites to be victims of violent crime, and serious violent crime rates have declined in recent years for both blacks and whites. Why do these discrepancies exist? Because of income inequality, racial and minority group members are often forced to live in deteriorated urban areas beset by alcohol and drug abuse, poverty, racial discrimination, and violence. Consequently, their lifestyle places them in the most at-risk population group.
Race and Ethnicity
61
Individuals who have been crime victims have a significantly higher chance of future victimization than people who have not been victims.
Repeat Victimization
62
The victims' physical weakness or psychological distress renders them incapable of resisting or deterring crime and makes them easy targets.
Target vulnerability
63
Some victims have some quality, possession, skill, or attribute that an offender wants to obtain, use, have access to, or manipulate. Having attractive possessions such as a leather coat may make one vulnerable to predatory crime.
Target gratifiability
64
Some characteristics increase risk because they arouse anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses in potential offenders. Being gay or effeminate, for example, may bring on undeserved attacks in the street; being argumentative and alcoholic may provoke barroom assaults.
Target antagonism.
65
strives to restore or reinforce their level of self-esteem or self-worth through different behaviors. They are prone to a lack of self-confidence, feelings of inadequacy, and have trouble in social interactions. They can, for example, decide to stay in an abusive relationship because they may feel gratitude toward their abuser.
Reassurance-Oriented Victims
66
victims are also driven by low self-esteem but focus their efforts to restore their self-worth through the derogation of others. In short, they improve their own feeling of worth by making people around them feel bad.
Assertive-Oriented Victims
67
victims harbor a "great deal of rage, either toward a specific person, group, institution, or a symbol of one of these"
This anger comes from a feeling of inadequacy or failure and, as a result, they often blame others for their problems, whether real or perceived.
Anger Retaliatory Oriented Victims
68
was developed by Knight, Warren, Reboussin, and Soley (1998). According to Petherick and Ferguson (2012), in some instances, "the anger is the result of a generalized state that is pervasive." It will include people whom "anger permeates many, if not all, aspects of
• Anybody can be the target of the anger because the anger is global and undifferentiated.
Pervasively Oriented Victims
69
this type is the most difficult to adapt from the offenders' typologies. In the offender typologies, the offender is classified as sadistic, and refers to
"an individual who experiences sexual gratification from the pain and suffering of another".
Excitation-Oriented Victims
70
victim is engaged in behaviors that serve material or personal gain, such as monetary of through the acquisition of goods. They can precipitate their own victimization because of a lack of financial resources, which can, for instance, lead them to stay with an abusive but wealthy partner or a financially controlling one.
Materially Oriented Victims
71
victims are those that engage in "strike back" behaviors against a real or perceived oppressor, or source of psychological stress and torment.
This preservation behavior can result in precipitating events in which they are unable to physically back up their actions, thereby becoming the victim rather than the "successful" aggressor
Preservation-Oriented Victims
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59問 • 1年前問題一覧
1
is the study of the etiology or causes of victimization, its consequences, how the criminal justice system accommodates and assists victims, and how other elements of society, such as media, deal with crime victims
Victimology
2
it comes for the Latin word victima and historically referred to any living being (human or animal) that was to be slaughtered or used in sacrifice to please a deity
Victim
3
this term includes all people who suffer harm or loss by accident, natural disasters, or war
general point of view
4
this definition includes any harm or loss attributable to the action of an individual, group, or organization that can affect a person
legal perspective
5
is "anyone who is injured or killed due to a violation of the criminal law." Thus, anyone can suffer from one form of crime or another. Therefore, we are all potential victims.
crime victim
6
-When the costs of goods taken during property crimes is added to productivity losses caused by injury, pain, and emotional trauma, the cost of victimization is estimated to be in the hundreds of billions of dollars.
-It also includes system cost with regards to maintaining the justice system and those cost that assist victims of juvenile violence, such as medical treatment for injuries and services for victims.
Economic Loss
7
-The suffering endured by crime victims does not end when their attacker leaves the scene of the crime. They may suffer more victimization by the justice system. While the crime is still fresh in their minds, victims may find that the police interrogation following the crime is handled callously, with innuendos or insinuations that they were somehow at fault. Victims have difficulty learning what is going on in the case; property is often kept for a long time as evidence and may never be returned.
-The system can be especially harsh on rape victims, some of whom report that the treatment they receive from legal, medical, and mental health services is so destructive that they cannot help feeling "re-raped."
System Abuse
8
Victims may suffer stress and anxiety long after the incident is over, and the justice process has been completed. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - a condition whose symptoms include depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior is a common problem especially when the victim does not receive adequate support from family and friends.
Long Term Stress
9
-Many people fear crime, especially the elderly, the poor, and minority group members. Their fear is escalated by lurid news accounts of crime and violence. While hearing about crime causes fear, those who experience it are even more likely to be fearful and change their behaviors.
-Victims of violent crime are the most deeply affected, fearing a repeat of their attack. Many go through a fundamental life change, viewing the world more suspiciously and as a less safe, controllable, and meaningful place.
Fear and Trauma
10
-There is growing evidence of a correlation between crime and victimization. Kids who are victims share many of the same characteristics as those who are delinquent, such as antisocial behavior tendencies and impulsive personalities.
-Victims may seek revenge against the people who harmed them or who they believe are at fault for their problems. In some cases, these feelings become generalized to others who share the same characteristics of their attackers.
Antisocial Behavior
11
-was a period of time, in which "the individual made the law, and he was the victim, the prosecutor, and the judge."
-The victims had to deal with the offenders because there were no authorities to enforce the law.
-The victim was presumed to be innocent and passive.
Golden Age or "victim justice system"
12
has been described as a "criminal-oriented justice system," where offenses were not considered as being perpetrated against the victims or their relatives but against the law of the king or state.
The Dark Age
13
-The early part of the mid-20th century (1940s) saw the “rediscovery" of victims and victims' rights being initiated by an emerging scholarly interest in the victim- offender relationship.
-After being focused for so long on the criminal, people started to study the dyad of the victim-offender to better understand the role of the victim during the criminal act.
Reemergence of the Victim
14
Has its roots in the early religious notions of suffering, sacrifice and death. This concept of "___" was well known in the ancient civilizations, especially in Babylonia, Palestine, Greece, and Rome. In each of these civilizations the law mandated that the victim should be recognized as a person who deserved to be made whole again by the offender.
Victim
15
Is a person who has been physically, financially, or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone committing a crime.
Crime Victim
16
Refers to the origin or cause of a victimization; the constellation of variables which caused a victimization to occur.
Victimogenesis
17
A victimization where the victim causes, in part or totally, their own victimization.
Victim Precipitation
18
It is a physical, psychological, social, material or financial condition whereby a person or an object has a weakness which could render them a victim if another person or persons would recognize these weaknesses and take advantage of them.
Vulnerability
19
It is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone, an event, an organization or a natural phenomenon.
General Victim
20
Refers to an event where persons, communities and institutions are damaged or injured in a significant way. Those persons who are impacted by persons or events suffer a violation of rights or significant disruption of their well - being.
Victimization
21
It is an academic scientific discipline which studies data that describes phenomena and causal relationships related to victimizations. This includes events leading to the victimization, the victim's experience, its aftermath and the actions taken by society in response to these victimizations.
Victimology
22
It is the violation of a national or international standard in the use of organized powerful forces such that persons are injured physically, mentally, emotionally, economically, or in their rights, as a direct and intentional result of the misapplication of these forces.
Abuse of power
23
Are those activities which are applied in response to victimizations with the intention of relieving suffering and facilitating recovery. This includes offering information, assessments, individual interventions, case advocacy, system advocacy, public policy, and programmed development.
Victim Assistance, Support or Services
24
-It is the resumption of the same or better level of functionality as was enjoyed prior to victimization.
-Persons who have been victimized vary in their level of mental health and wellbeing prior to their victimization.
Victim Recovery
25
- It is the intentional application of sexual, physical, emotional, or psychological injury to a child to include neglect at the hands of her or his parents or care-provider within the confines of their family or place of care.
Child Abuse
26
It is a formal process for face-to-face meetings in the presence of a trained mediator between a victim of a crime and his/her offender who committed that crime.
Victim Offender Mediation
27
It is a systematic formal legal response to crime victimization that emphasizes healing the injuries that resulted from the crime and affected the victims, offenders, and communities. This process is a departure from the traditional retributive form of dealing with criminals and victims which traditionally have generally perpetuated the conflict which resulted in the original crime.
Restorative Justice
28
- It includes emotional and physical experiences that produce pain and injuries. Emotional injury is a normal response to an extremely abnormal event. It results from the pairing of a painful or frightening emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge and have a long-lasting effect on the life of a person. The more direct the exposure to the traumatic event, the higher the risk for emotional harm and prolonged effects.
Victim Trauma
29
It is the provision of emergency psychological care to traumatized victims so as to help them return to an adaptive level of functioning and to prevent or mitigate the negative impact of psychological and emotional trauma.
Crisis Intervention
30
It is a formal administrative procedure provided by law which provides only money to victims for
"out of pocket" real expenses directly resulting from the victimization to be paid by the state after the victim is found
to qualify according to specific criteria determined by the respective state or federal law.
Compensation
31
It is a formal judicial procedure used by a Judge after guilt is determined as part of a sentence which can provide money and/or services to the victim for damages or suffering which resulted from the victimization to be paid or performed by the offender.
Restitution
32
- It is a periodic data collection and analysis process conducted usually by a government entity within the general population to study information about crime victims regardless of whether they reported their victimization to the police or not.
- It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview (or sent questionnaire) and covers demographics, attitudes about crime and details about the victimizations experienced over the previous six months.
Victim Survey
33
Are privileges and procedures required by written law which guarantee victims specific considerations and treatment by the criminal justice system, the government, and the community at large.
Victim Rights
34
The study of violent crime victims for the purposes of addressing investigative and forensic questions. It involves the accurate, critical, and objective outlining of a victim's lifestyles and circumstances, the events leading up to an injury, and the precise nature of any harm or loss suffered
Forensic Victimology
35
The belief that victims are inherently good, honest, and pure, making those who defend them righteous and morally justified.
Sanctity of Victimhood
36
Individuals who share a capacity for being victimized.
Victim Prone
37
It is considered one of the first systematic theories to explain criminal victimization.
According to Siegel (2010), "the basis of lifestyle exposure is that crime is not a random occurrence but rather a function of the victim's lifestyle."
The Lifestyle - Exposure Theory
38
Inspired by the lifestyle theory, Cohen and Felson (1979) developed this theory after observing an increase in crime rates, such as robbery, aggravated assault, forcible rape, and homicide, while the social trends and economic conditions in the United States were generally stable.
Routine Activity Theory
39
Maintains that some people instigate or initiate a particular confrontation that may in the end lead to that person becoming victimized by injury or death. There are two types of precipitation i.e. active or passive. Active precipitation occurs when the victim deliberately acts in a provocative manner, uses abusive words, or threats, or even attacks first.
Victim Precipitation Theory
40
This theory holds that victims do not motivate crime but rather are more likely to become victims due to the fact they live in social areas that are disorganized and contain high-crime rates and therefore have the highest risk of coming into contact with criminals regardless of their lifestyle or behavior.
Deviant Place Theory
41
It is defined as the extent to which a victim is responsible for his or her own victimization. The concept is rooted on the notion that, although some victims are not at all responsible for their victimization, other victims are.
Victim Precipitation
42
This occurs when a victim unintentionally makes it easier for an offender to commit a crime. A victim may, in this way, be a catalyst for victimization. For example, a woman who accidentally left her purse in plain view in her office while she went to the restroom and then had it stolen would be a victim who facilitated her own victimization.
Victim Facilitation
43
This occurs when a person does something that incites another person to commit an illegal.
Provocation suggests that without the victim's behavior, the crime would have not occurred. Provocation, then, most certainly connotes blame. In fact, the offender is not at all responsible.
-For example, if a person attempted to mug a man a who was walking home from work and the man, instead of willingly giving the offender his wallet, pulled out a gun and shot the mugger.
-The offender in this scenario ultimately is a victim, but he would not have been shot if not for attempting to mug the shooter.
Victim provocation
44
It is the attitude which suggests that the victim rather than the perpetrator bears responsibility for the assault. It occurs when it is assumed that an individual did something to provoke the violence by actions, words, or dress.
Victim Blaming
45
was posited by Shaver in 1970 and argues that when an individual is confronted with the seemingly whimsical victimization of another person, they become threatened by the realization that such random misfortunes could also happen to them. The forced acknowledgment of the potential for such an experience then results in a negative emotional response that initiates a cognitive coping strategy to meet the need for self-preservation, and a sense of security, predictability, and personal control.
Defensive Attribution Theory
46
is a form of DAT that was first introduced by Lerner in 1965. According to Lerner and Miller (1978), the JWT argues that individuals have a need to believe that they live in a world where people generally get what they deserve.
The belief that the world is just enables the individual to confront his physical and social environment as though they were stable and orderly.
Just World Hypothesis
47
Claims that those who subscribe to the theory blame victims as a means to protect their own feelings of invulnerability.
Invulnerability Theory
48
The homicide literature is the first place in which the notion of victim blaming appears when Wolfgang introduced the term victim-precipitated homicide. The term victim-precipitated homicide is applied to those criminal homicides in which the victim is direct, positive precipitator in the crime.
Victim Blaming in Homicide
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Rape myths are prominent in the literature. Plenty of myths about victims' culpability and theories have been developed to blame the victims.
Victim Blaming in Sexual Assault
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This is a myth long held despite the evidence indicating that across developed countries men account for around 10% of victims. According to the myth,
"a man should be able to fight back or escape the attacker and is therefore more to blame if raped"
Men cannot be raped
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Belief in this myth belies an utter ignorance of the common responses to rape that may be exhibited by the victim. Indeed, some victims may choose to fight back violently, even to the point of their own death. That is one end of the spectrum. Other victims may choose to simply acquiesce, whereas other may be incapable of any deliberate response. It all depends on the victim's individual personality, capability, and experiences.
There is no rape if the victim did not resist.
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Women victims are too often blamed for being provocative, seductive, suggestive, for proposing, teasing, or just plain
"asking for it". Men in this myth are seen as helplessly lusty, sexually frustrated beings, responding to sexually provocative women.
The victim has been in some way seductive or provocative.
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They include women or men who cannot be raped because of their lifestyle or because of their relationship with the accused. Because of whom they are or because of how they live, they have somehow given up the right to refuse sexual access to themselves or they are somehow deserving of rape and therefore do not require the beneft of justice.
These include prostitutes (and other sex industry workers), those who live or dress promiscuously, and the intimate partners of the accused, especially their wives.
The "unrapable" victims.
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Stalking is a course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to feel fear. Victims of stalking, particularly those of stalkers who were, at one time, an intimate partner, are routinely held responsible, judged, and not taken seriously.
Victim Blaming in Stalking
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Myths of domestic violence often stereotype the victim as the "battered woman" who is small, fragile, and haggard.
Victims are perceived as having limited options, no external skills or personal attributes that can relay control and choice, and are therefore economically dependent on the perpetrator.
Victim Blaming in Domestic Violence
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it affects victimization risk. Males are more likely than females to be the victims of violent crime. Men are almost twice as likely as women to experience robbery and 50 percent more likely to be the victim of assault; women are much more likely than men to be victims of rape or sexual assault.
Gender
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Victim data reveal that young people face a much greater victimization risk than do older people., Victim risk diminishes rapidly after age 25 and becomes negligible after age 65.
Age
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The poor are also the most likely victims of violent and property crime. For example, homeless people, who are among the poorest individuals suffer very high rates of assault. This association occurs across all gender, age, and racial groups. Although the poor are more likely to suffer violent crimes, the wealthy are more likely targets of personal theft crimes such as pocket picking and purse snatching. Perhaps the affluent sporting more expensive attire and driving better cars attract the attention of thieves.
Social Status
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also influences victimization risk.
Never-married males and females are victimized more often than married people. Widows and widowers have the lowest victimization risk. This association between marital status and victimization is probably influenced by age, gender, and lifestyle
Marital Status
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African Americans are more likely than whites to be victims of violent crime, and serious violent crime rates have declined in recent years for both blacks and whites. Why do these discrepancies exist? Because of income inequality, racial and minority group members are often forced to live in deteriorated urban areas beset by alcohol and drug abuse, poverty, racial discrimination, and violence. Consequently, their lifestyle places them in the most at-risk population group.
Race and Ethnicity
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Individuals who have been crime victims have a significantly higher chance of future victimization than people who have not been victims.
Repeat Victimization
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The victims' physical weakness or psychological distress renders them incapable of resisting or deterring crime and makes them easy targets.
Target vulnerability
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Some victims have some quality, possession, skill, or attribute that an offender wants to obtain, use, have access to, or manipulate. Having attractive possessions such as a leather coat may make one vulnerable to predatory crime.
Target gratifiability
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Some characteristics increase risk because they arouse anger, jealousy, or destructive impulses in potential offenders. Being gay or effeminate, for example, may bring on undeserved attacks in the street; being argumentative and alcoholic may provoke barroom assaults.
Target antagonism.
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strives to restore or reinforce their level of self-esteem or self-worth through different behaviors. They are prone to a lack of self-confidence, feelings of inadequacy, and have trouble in social interactions. They can, for example, decide to stay in an abusive relationship because they may feel gratitude toward their abuser.
Reassurance-Oriented Victims
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victims are also driven by low self-esteem but focus their efforts to restore their self-worth through the derogation of others. In short, they improve their own feeling of worth by making people around them feel bad.
Assertive-Oriented Victims
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victims harbor a "great deal of rage, either toward a specific person, group, institution, or a symbol of one of these"
This anger comes from a feeling of inadequacy or failure and, as a result, they often blame others for their problems, whether real or perceived.
Anger Retaliatory Oriented Victims
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was developed by Knight, Warren, Reboussin, and Soley (1998). According to Petherick and Ferguson (2012), in some instances, "the anger is the result of a generalized state that is pervasive." It will include people whom "anger permeates many, if not all, aspects of
• Anybody can be the target of the anger because the anger is global and undifferentiated.
Pervasively Oriented Victims
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this type is the most difficult to adapt from the offenders' typologies. In the offender typologies, the offender is classified as sadistic, and refers to
"an individual who experiences sexual gratification from the pain and suffering of another".
Excitation-Oriented Victims
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victim is engaged in behaviors that serve material or personal gain, such as monetary of through the acquisition of goods. They can precipitate their own victimization because of a lack of financial resources, which can, for instance, lead them to stay with an abusive but wealthy partner or a financially controlling one.
Materially Oriented Victims
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victims are those that engage in "strike back" behaviors against a real or perceived oppressor, or source of psychological stress and torment.
This preservation behavior can result in precipitating events in which they are unable to physically back up their actions, thereby becoming the victim rather than the "successful" aggressor
Preservation-Oriented Victims