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The greater the difference in status or rank is, the greater the difficulty in achieving effective communications. Communications are easier if they travel downward from the superior than if they go upward from the subordinate. Likewise, the greater the prestige of the communicator, the greater is the likelihood that his communications will be effective. Some researchers have found that “speakers having prestige significantly influence listeners more than those who do not.

status differences affect communications

these feelings often cause a bad “climate” between supervisor and subordinate and adversely affect their capacity to communicate effectively. Especially damaging to these relationships are those manifestations of superiority or impatience exhibited by supervisors in dealing with their subordinates. Often subordinates will resent having the boss talk down to them and will resent even more a paternalistic attitude.

psychological size

Redundancy is inefficient in that it wastes time in repetition, but it is efficient if it helps to clarify and get the message across better.11 The extent to which noise is reduced as a distractor will largely determine how effective a communication is. Psychological stress from the outside or inside, failure to listen actively, environmental distractors, and even abstractions can be considered noises that hinder communication.

noise in communication

They often feel so insecure that they dislike giving others occasion to attack their observations. As a result, they too often couch their expressions in vagueness and abstraction, always leaving “an open back door” through which they can retreat if their statements are challenged. Communicating in such cases becomes difficult, if not impossible. The supervisor will contribute to this condition if he editorializes on each bit of information he receives, embellishes on it, or overevaluates its importance.

harmful effects of fear of criticism on communication

If a supervisor’s attitude indicates that he is unreceptive, however, he will soon be operating in a vacuum. He will shut off his sources or will hear only the pleasant information or that which his subordinates think he wants to hear. Thus, the supervisor is shielded from the unpleasant truth by those who believe that they are doing him a favor by keeping him in ignorance or in good humor. Actually, they are doing him a great disservice and are exposing him to even greater liability by forcing him to make value judgments based on partial, inaccurate, or distorted information or information taken out of context. This is especially true in the police service, where breaching the “code of silence” is generally looked on, by some, with disfavor. Giving employees filtered information is sometimes worse than giving them none. Besides the adverse effects filtering eventually will have on the confidence of personnel in their leader, such distorted information will often cause rumors that are harmful to morale.

filtering communication

Feelings between individuals vary widely. Their likes and dislikes of other persons may aid or harm their communications. moods, and emotions likewise have a direct bearing on the type of interaction between individuals. These interactions will vary from time to time depending on the intensity of emotions, the receptive mood of either of the two persons attempting to communicate, or the attitude of one toward the other. These factors should be considered by the supervisor in selecting the time and place for communicating with his subordinates. If the communication is a threat to his own goals, he may refuse to acknowledge it or may accept it even though he disagrees with it, depending on how well he has been conditioned to accept discipline in the organization. If he has a feeling of true identification with the group, he will probably accept without question most communications that are of a directive nature. In the end, the important thing is how he accepts them and how they cause him to react.

how attitudes affect communications

That message may be received through formal or informal channels. With respect to informal channels, the grapevine typically operates with great strength in most organizations. determine objective, practice empathy, obtain feedback, keep subordinates informed, be consistent in communicating, make actions speak louder than words, listen understand and be understood,

overcome communication barriers

autocratic, democratic, free rein

catagories of communication

Is he a noncommunicator, who says no more than he thinks the situation requires? Has he failed to say something that should be said? Is he a logical speaker troubled by anxieties or compulsiveness? Is he unconcerned with the impact his statements have on others? Is he the undertalker, who often fails to communicate when communicating is indicated? Is he the tiresome overtalker, who often communicates well but does not know when to stop? Is he a tangential speaker? Does he fail to give direct response as expected, responding instead to irrelevant side issues? Is he the so-called helpless speaker, full of self-pity and self-apology? Does he apologize for asking a subordinate to do something he is expected to do? If he does the latter, any respect his subordinates have for him will soon be eroded.

types of communications

writing ordinarily simplifies expression and facilitates understanding. The first paragraph expresses the essential elements of the paper and is called the topic paragraph. The first, or topic, sentence should likewise express the essence of the paragraph it introduces. Succeeding paragraphs explain and amplify the opening paragraph in such a way that each is almost self-sustaining. Thus the report proceeds from the most important ideas to the least important details, which make the main ideas more meaningful.

newspaper style writing

The heading of the report should obviously indicate the title or subject, the body presents the main ideas or findings, and the closing incorporates the conclusions, recommendations, and plan of action. The name of the writer should be included for purposes of accountability.

main parts of writing

An employee will sometimes be asked to reduce a lengthy report or dissertation to give his superior a concise account of the contents. The total report should be carefully analyzed to select the important ideas or points to be covered

briefing

First, the writer, because of a lack of care or an inability to discriminate between fact and nonfact, confuses his communications by misinterpreting the data on which they are based. Second, the writer fails to use the most specific and concrete words to make his meaning clear. Third, the writer fails to support his conclusions by factual data.

deficiencies in writing

The problem has become one of considerable significance to law enforcement agencies in light of the fact that one in four officers may have a problem

problem drinking and law enforcement

Stresses associated with a person's job, family, relationships with people, or economic responsibilities may cause confusion, anxiety, insecurity, frustration, unhappiness, or loneliness and often lead the individual to drinking to relieve them. Individuals’ social drinking habits begin to deviate from the usual drinking standards of their associates, or they begin to solve their real or imagined emotional problems or to obtain satisfaction with the aid of alcohol. These reactions place them on the broad road to addiction.

cause of problem drinking

an early stage, a middle or intermediate stage, and a late or acute stage. Each has its characteristic symptoms.7 These stages may consume many months or years, with no abrupt transition from one stage to another. The progression often goes unnoticed.

stages of problem drinking

excuses rationalizations, regression, fixations The most prominent are the employees’ preoccupation with alcohol, the self-deception “games” they play in denying a problem or justifying drinking, guilt feelings (reflected in many ways), memory lapses, and the anxiety and depression they often suffer.

defense mechanisms used by problem drinker

The supervisor should actively listen without shock or surprise while encouraging employees to express their feelings, no matter how embarrassing they may be.

The importance of listening in counseling

in which the supervisor stimulates individuals to discover their own problem and decide on a course of action to correct it, has been found to be extremely productive. It may not accomplish everything that can be done, but it can do no harm so long as it doesn’t become abrasive. Employees are more apt to respond to a solution they work out for themselves, than to one the supervisor works out for them.

nondirective counseling employee centered

when the employee begins to understand that they need to find some way of facing their problems other than with alcohol, it might be suggested to them that they learn about available treatment options. They should then be guided into some positive effort to find appropriate assistance.

good

become involved in subordinates’ personal affairs: when employees ask for help (in which case their problem becomes the supervisors’ also), and when the problem has affected the subordinates’ performance.

supervisors obligated to

When counseling by the supervisor or intervention by a close friend is not feasible, employees might be directed to secure a

secure a medical examination

Problem drinkers will usually deny to others and to themselves that they have a problem, especially during the early stages of the disease. They will seldom believe that they need help to solve a problem they do not acknowledge. In fact, the most significant hurdle to overcome in the whole corrective cycle is that of bringing them to a realization that they have a problem and need someone to help them resolve it. This is usually a more important step than the treatment itself because they will never seek treatment until they are ready to admit that they need it. Although the supervisor may conclude quite accurately what the problem is, telling the person involved might be precisely what ought not to be done. Supervisors cannot be expected to make a medical diagnosis of the condition, nor should they try—that is a function of the professional. the supervisor can avoid giving advice or opinions, diagnosing the problem, and directing the subordinate in solving it. Interest can then be focused on how to help them gain insight into their problem

counselor avoid giving the problem drinker advice

useful for encouraging the employee to talk. They should also be used to obtain information or to lead the conversation toward matters that are more pertinent.

three main reasons for questions

be preserved because they cannot be helped until they want to be. They must be allowed to make their own evaluation of themselves and gain insight into their problem through the process of gentle prompting.

employees ego

This procedure will only contribute to the subject’s apprehensions, and may aggravate their suspicions and increase their defensiveness. It will also tend to divert the attention of supervisors and the employees from the real issues

note taking during session

When employees begin to realize that they have a drinking problem and make a purposeful effort to help themselves find the scientific reasons for it, supervisors might suggest some appropriate literature or websites on the subject. Then, when the employee begins to understand that they need to find some way of facing their problems other than with alcohol,

supervisor suggested professional help

to get problem drinkers to give up drinking, but also to lead them to the realization that they can never be a moderate drinker, and that they can never again use alcohol

objective of counseling

may result from even a short exposure to stress and may cause reactions that seriously impair performance. The symptoms may develop from a sense of loss or a threatening situation commonly associated with job pressures, a fear of failure (especially in a competitive occupation), or an overmagnification of the importance of a goal. When these conditions cause a person to become depressed, they usually lose their objectivity and sense of perspective. Stresses associated with a person's job, family, relationships with people, or economic responsibilities may cause confusion, anxiety, insecurity, frustration, unhappiness, or loneliness and often lead the individual to drinking to relieve them

depression

should be aware include the following: Depression Previous suicide attempt Increase in use of alcoholic beverages Overly aggressive or violent behavior Any changes in mood or behavior that are out of the ordinary Changes in work habits Behavioral clues of suicidal thoughts Anger or irritability Concern expressed by family/friends/colleagues Supervisors also should be aware of direct and indirect verbal clues, including comments such as: Direct I’m going to kill myself. I wish I were dead. I’m going to commit suicide. Indirect I can’t go on any longer. We all have to say goodbye sometime. I can’t take it anymore.

suicidal warning signs

the work environment; harsh, abusive, tyrannical, or inept supervision; misunderstandings about policies and procedures of the organization; and management failures of various types.

four categories into which employee dissatisfaction can be grouped

failure of management personnel to protect the resources of the organization. Much of employee discontent can be associated with their opposition to rules and regulations they construe as being an infringement of their personal rights. the manner in which such rules and regulations are enforced by management personnel, especially those at the working level.

cause of adverse reactions of employees

the manner in which organizational rules are enforced more than the rules themselves. The most frequently cited reason for opposition is the inconsistency of supervisors in enforcing the organization’s rules. Failures of supervisors to follow the same rules that officers are expected to follow invariably cause strong negative reactions. Overly severe punishments for violations of rules are also likely to be resisted and criticized by employees. Undoubtedly, many of these can be prevented by supervisors if they learn how to motivate and direct their subordinates

supervisor practices employees oppose

It is obvious that officers’ demands for greater freedom from management controls are growing. In the last decade, they have insisted on greater and greater procedural safeguards to protect them against management infringements on their personal rights, and these demands have been reflected in many states providing for a police officer’s “Bill of Rights.” These statutes usually confer on an employee a property interest in his position. In addition, contractual agreement, common practice under existing rules, or understandings, like statutes, may give employees, even those who are not tenured, a property or liberty interest in their employment. In cases where either of these interests is affected by the employer’s action, courts will require that Supervisors should exercise considerable care in attempting to punish subordinates for conduct of a purely personal nature not involving their job performance or the public image of the organization and its real interests. Such occurrences sometimes place supervisors in a situation requiring a choice between two undesirable alternatives: Either they take action contrary to legal rules protecting employees and risk a court challenge that might overrule them, or they are forced to overlook conduct that they consider improper and take no action at all.

due process violation

When employees complain because they believe the management in an organization has breached an agreement of their contract, a more formalized procedure is usually required. Typically, four steps are involved when dissatisfaction degenerates into In the first step, the supervisor or the employee representative receives the complaint; often the issue can be resolved at this level. If the supervisor’s inquiry reveals a true basis for the complaint, appropriate corrective action can be taken and the issue resolved then and there. Reasonableness and fairness on the part of the supervisor, the employee, and the employee representative are essential to prompt resolution. Should attempts fail to resolve the matter at this level, the matter becomes an official grievance. This is the second step, in which the complaint is referred to an intermediate level of management for resolution. Third, should disagreement continue, is transmitted to the top level of management within the organization. When attempts to reach a resolution fail at this step, the matter then proceeds to the fourth step—voluntary arbitration. It should be noted that 90 percent of grievances brought to an arbitration hearing involve discipline brought against an officer.14 The typical work contract usually provides that both parties accept as binding the decision of an impartial arbitrator.

formal grievance

That form of training and attitudinal conditioning used to correct deficiencies without invoking punishment. It is constructive in nature. a systematic approach designed to instruct or guide employees in such a way that they become loyal, dedicated, responsible, and productive members of the organization.

positive discipline

takes the form of punishment or chastisement. When positive methods fail to achieve conformity with accepted standards of conduct or performance, a negative type of action, punitive in nature, must follow to preserve the integrity of the organization. This action will generally follow a progressive approach. Delpo and Guerin describe progressive discipline as a system of escalated penalties made known to employees in advance and imposed with increasing severity for repeated infractions; normally such a system includes the following:7 Oral warning Written warning Disciplinary layoff or suspension Discharge

negative discipline

certainty, swiftness, fairness and impartiality, consistently, deterrence for others

prerequisites of punishment

prerequisite of punishment that deters future behaviors

certainty

Wise supervisors know that they themselves may bear some responsibility for many of the derelictions of their subordinates because of failure to communicate clearly with them or to train them properly. An inadvertent deviation from standards or an act of carelessness is one thing; intentional misconduct is quite another. The supervisor should differentiate between the two and take action accordingly, keeping in mind that the training value gained from an error may far exceed the harm done by it.

mistake of the head or heart

forcing the supervisors to maintain constant pressure on them to gain compliance with directions, by withholding information from the supervisors, and by doing a myriad of other things calculated to indicate their displeasure.

subordinates upward discipline against a superior

some organizations publish in their house organ or by special notices the disciplinary actions taken against personnel. Some contend that this publication places the chastised employee in double jeopardy, while others believe the benefits to the total organization more than offset the hazards of such procedures. If the results of disciplinary actions are published within the organization for training purposes, organizational policy will dictate whether the names of those disciplined are omitted and only the penalties and the derelictions on which they were based are briefly reported. Although it is argued that this approach accomplishes the objective of letting others know the types of actions that result in punishment, the procedure has some inherent dangers

negative disciplinary actions are also training for others

is a state of mind reflecting the degree to which an individual has confidence in the members of the group and in the organization, believes in its objectives, and desires to accomplish them. The exact state of morale at a particular time within an establishment is difficult to measure since it is dependent on a multitude of factors: the quality of leadership to which the group members are exposed, the level of discipline in the organization, extraneous pressures, the existence or absence of attainable goals, the remuneration received by employees, fringe benefits, and other working conditions. 190 it fluctuating condition existing within individuals and in groups. It may be high or low, moving up or down as it is influenced by a variety of stimuli.

morale

the most obvious indicator that morale is slumping is a general deterioration in the

appearance of personnel

involves the existence of a sense of common endeavor and responsibility within the group. It embodies devotion to the group enterprise, cooperation among its members, and pride in its accomplishments.

Esprit de corps

equal importance, since they are interdependent. Each may flow from the others, or each may adversely affect the others. When these three occur together at a favorable level, however, efficiency will be in direct proportion.

how discipline, morale, and esprit de corps are interrelated

is usually accompanied by a high level of discipline and esprit de corps.

high morale

quality or quantity of work, the rate of turnover, the number of disciplinary cases, the number of grievances (imagined or real), the amount of absenteeism, acts of disloyalty to the organization, a sharp increase in bickering and arguments among its members, incidents involving the careless use of equipment, and the misuse of sick time.

indicators of morale

employee becomes an embittered marginal performer, producing just enough to avoid further punishment and contaminating others at every opportunity. Not only does this person’s morale suffer greatly, but the morale of all who must work with the employee is affected as well. All too often, fellow employees who have heard only one version of the story will commiserate with their colleague. It should be clear that a poorly done investigation and the failure to prepare adequately have long-term consequences. 191 To be sure, the prestige of management and the confidence of its employees will be lowered by each reversal of a disciplinary judgment it has made. Supervisors whose cases have not been sustained frequently become reluctant to take further action against the same or another delinquent employee because of the failure. As a result, their effectiveness and that of the entire unit they direct is lowered. In those agencies where excessively liberal rules have been enacted by overzealous civil service commissions or legislators to protect employee interests, supervisors will often tolerate substandard employees rather than remove them and contend with defending their case against the employees on appeal

adverse effects when an employee is reinstated after appeals dismissal.

The primary objectives in the administration of an effective personnel complaint investigation policy are to protect the integrity and reputation of the force, to protect the public interest, and to protect the accused employee from unjust accusation.

inquiry into every complaint

to protect the integrity and reputation of the force, to protect the public interest, and to protect the accused employee from unjust accusation.

objectives of personnel investigation policy

In many jurisdictions, public entities (agencies of state, county, and local government) have been traditionally immune from civil liability resulting from wrongful acts by their employees. This immunity was based on the ancient philosophy commonly known as the divine right of kings. Public employees have always been liable for their own negligent or wrongful acts and have been liable for compensatory as well as exemplary (or punitive) damages. The former were damages resulting from actual loss of wages, medical expenses, or pain and suffering; the latter were damages awarded by the courts to punish the defendant, especially when malice, fraud, corruption, or connivance was involved in the acts that were the basis of the litigation.

sovereign immunity

doctrine of the past wherein, as a practical matter, it was useless to sue a person with empty pockets no longer applies. This is because the treasury of a public agency may now be exposed to civil suit for the wrongful deeds of its employees.

empty pockets

a public entity is liable for the wrongful acts or omissions of its employees who are acting within the scope of their employment. This is the essence of vicarious liability, which is defined by Black’s Law Dictionary as: “Liability that a supervisory party (employer) bears for the actionable conduct of a subordinate or associate (employee) because of the relationship between the two parties.”25 Employees were formerly liable by themselves for both compensatory and exemplary damages, and they are still liable for exemplary damages. In some jurisdictions, the public agency that employs them is liable along with them for compensatory damages. They may also elect to assume liability for punitive damages in certain instances when the acts or omissions were committed or omitted while the employees were acting within the scope of their employment.

respondeat superior

the federal Civil Rights Act.27 Allegations are being raised with increasing frequency that the improper use of force by the officer was a proximate result of lack of training and/or supervision to a degree that constitutes “gross neglect” or “deliberate indifference” of the supervisor and/or the employing agency to the plaintiff’s rights. Indeed, supervisors in their individual capacity for their own culpable action or inaction in the training, supervision, or control of subordinates.28 Under the theory of negligent retention, a supervisor and/or agency might also be responsible for “indifference” to the retention of an employee who is known to be or should have been known to be unfit for the job.29 In such cases, the history of the officer’s training, both formal and informal, which might protect the supervisor and the department from responsibility arising under the “deliberate indifference” test, should be gathered and retained in the investigation file.

personal liability a supervisor might have

complaints are those emanating from within the organization. They include those made by report auditors who find deficiencies or irregularities in reports; jailors, who report on improper conduct of employees in the treatment of arrestees or prisoners; and supervisors, who observe misconduct and initiate disciplinary action.

internal

those received directly from alleged victims of police action or debtors

primary complaints

those from persons who are not themselves victims but who complain on behalf of others. Such complaints may be made by attorneys, elected officials, representatives of organized groups, parents, or others whose attention has been directed to possible deviant behavior through observation or who act as the spokesman for others in complaining of such behavior.

secondary complaints

unidentified source. This could be an internal or external complaint. A police agency serious about professionalism and the public trust must take these complaints as seriously as those brought forward by known complainants. In fact, these complaints have the potential to be even more serious when you consider that the complainants probably have serious fears about identifying themselves.

anonymous complaint

should always be reinterviewed when they are sober. It has been found that, at this time, they will often temper their original complaint, change it, or withdraw it completely when sober reflection indicates to them its injustice. For example, sobriety often enables them to recollect what happened to property they thought was taken by arresting officers.

complaints by intoxicated person

records of accused employees should be carefully scrutinized for evidence that they have previously been the subject of similar complaints. The existence of similar accusations may point to the need for a closer examination of the officer’s conduct. Valuable clues to the employees’ pattern of behavior may be revealed by a series of similar complaints.

personnel

experienced supervisors have found that only on the rarest of occasions would a situation arise in which it would be advisable . Seldom will anything beneficial to the investigation be accomplished by this procedure, but it could well make a bad situation worse. Claims and counterclaims, if not downright violence, can easily be precipitated in such volatile situations. If the case is serious enough to require a show-up for identification purposes, the supervisor can easily make the necessary arrangements without risking the possible complications that might result from a confrontation of the parties.

complainant and the accused employee together in a face-to-face encounter

Except in very minor cases, a record of the circumstances of every incident and the action taken should be made where a breach of discipline requires punitive action by the supervisor. Such records may vary from a brief notation in the supervisor’s activity log to an incident report for an infraction requiring only an on-the-spot warning or admonition to a full detailed report for a more serious dereliction requiring review by higher authority and possible punitive action of a more formal nature.5 Such records will provide documentation in the event of a recurrence of such unacceptable conduct.

general procedure

Pictures of employees might suffice for the purpose of identification if such is necessary. The guidelines set forth by the courts should be followed in this process to ensure fairness and impartiality to all parties involved.16 Several photographs should be selected, showing individuals with dress, features, pose, and complexion similar to those of the accused. Persons making the identification should not be influenced or open to suggestion in their attempt to select the right photograph, nor would they be given reason to conclude or guess that the photographs shown to them include the picture of the person to be identified. Investigating supervisors must proceed cautiously in cases in which there is potential for criminal charges against an officer. Officers may be ordered to give statements and/or write reports under threat of dismissal for refusing to follow such orders. However, the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled in Garrity v. New Jersey that under such orders, the statements may not be used against the officer in a criminal trial due to the Miranda rights against self-incrimination.11 It is imperative that investigators consult with the jurisdiction’s prosecuting attorney’s office when an officer may face criminal charges.

criminal offense

, the employee may be protected from warrantless searches and inspections of this type of department property. If it is the employer’s intent not to grant an employee a reasonable expectation of privacy in such assigned property, that intent should be clearly indicated by practice or in a policy statement. Therefore, supervisors should be fully aware of the search-and-seizure rules in their particular jurisdiction so that they may avoid the exclusion of evidence that has been seized in violation of the employee’s reasonable expectation of privacy or other Fourth Amendment rights. The department’s legal advisor or representative of the prosecutor’s office may always be contacted for guidance and direction. Some courts have held that searches of departmental property, such as lockers, police vehicles, and desks, generally may be conducted without a warrant. Whenever practicable, searches should be made in private. Matters can be disposed of with a minimum of resentment if subordinates are convinced of the need for such steps to protect themselves from future aspersions resulting from a failure on the part of the investigator to follow what might appear to be a necessary investigative procedure. A forthright approach by the supervisor will tend to reduce the adverse effects on morale often accompanying such incidents. 208 Whenever practicable, a search of the vehicle or effects of accused persons should be made in their presence. Should a search of their residence become necessa

employee searches

The report of the investigation should ideally contain a heading, a statement of the complaint, a summary of the investigation, details of the investigation, conclusions and recommendations (when requested by higher authority or required by rules and regulations), and addenda.

personnel investigation report

A certain portion of all disciplinary actions fails because supervisors do not know how to conduct personnel investigations. The answer to this problem is . Other disciplinary actions fail to accomplish their objectives not because of the insufficiency of the evidence, but as a direct result of the failures of investigators to fulfill their responsibilities. They avoid doing what has to be done in fulfilling their obligation to maintain departmental disciplinary standards. This is either because of their overprotectiveness or defensive attitude toward their subordinates, or because of their disinclination to do anything that might hurt one of them. Even one whose actions have discredited their agency and the profession. Their failures are often the result of their fear of disapproval from those with whom they work. On occasion, they will fail to investigate complaints completely (if at all). Their delays in making a prompt inquiry into personnel breaches often result in the destruction or disappearance of evidence, that might otherwise have been collected. It may also result in the cooling of witnesses, or the downright concoction of stories that will prevent any possible resolution of the matter.

training

will provide one tool for measuring employee capabilities and giving management an inventory of them. provide a means for supervisors to record systematically at specified intervals their opinions regarding the performance of subordinates. They establish a basis for rewarding or penalizing personnel and for explaining to them why they are or are not progressing satisfactorily. which the supervisor can help a substandard employee develop a program to improve performance. Properly executed, such a system will also be a valuable tool in the placement and promotion of personnel, the administration of merit pay or salary increases, disciplinary proceedings, and similar matters. 220 provide supervisors with a means for measuring those abstract traits of their subordinates that cannot be easily measured otherwise. Absences, tardiness, production, and accomplishments can be easily measured directly, but this is not so with such traits as loyalty, ability to get along with others, and temperamental stability.

evaluation systems

Regardless of the sophistication of the rating procedures or the importance of the program, an evaluation system will be successful only if the raters or those rated really want it to succeed. Indifference of supervisors to the need for accuracy in rating can damage the effectiveness of the system, as can the failure of the administrators of the organization to support the program actively, since their passivity will discourage the raters below and cause them to lose interest in the program. Training raters is the key to the successful administration of a rating system and is its most usual source of weakness. abused by management. Ratings should be utilized only as they were intended; once the purposes for which they were adopted have been announced, their use should be confined to those purposes. Slipshod, inaccurate methods affect every person in the organization because each one rates or is rated. In some cases, individuals may rate others and be rated themselves Experience has shown that abridged versions of rating scales devised to economize on time at the expense of accuracy have been responsible for a high percentage of failures.

rating system failures

involves the collection of objective data about an employee’s performance, which can be used as a basis for more effective performance ratings. Critical incidents indicating superior or unsatisfactory performance are reported as they are observed and can be used as an objective standard for ratings about which raters can agree. The use of in-car video and body-worn camera clips can complement the written documentation. Vague or abstract trait ratings that often reflect personal bias can thus be minimized. Such data dealing with specifics rather than abstractions are also valuable as a basis for counseling employees about their performance.

The critical incident technique

can be grouped into broad categories such as personal characteristics (traits needed for the job), ability (adequate performance of the duties of the position), performance (quality and quantity of work), and suitability for promotion (acceptable to superior work). Additional or fewer categories may be used depending on the purpose to be served by the rating report.

Rating traits and abilities

Personal Characteristics Ability Honesty Stability Character Initiative Attitude Job knowledge Appearance Judgment Persistence Common sense Imagination Loyalty Performance Suitability for Promotion Quality of work Leadership ability Quantity of work Administrative ability Accuracy Job knowledge Attention to duty Communication skills Perseverance Interpersonal skills Efficiency Ability to plan Supervision required Acceptance of responsibility Ability to resolve complaints from public Ability to organize Handling of specific job duties (patrol, traffic, investigations, reports) Decision-making ability Performance under stress Command presence Effectiveness Disciplinary function

sub categories

Are officers keeping themselves informed of what is happening on their beat or in their area? Are they making use of crime and traffic data or police incident summaries to gain an awareness of crime, developing traffic accident patterns, and/or exposed hazard areas? Are officers familiar with crime, delinquency, and traffic trends in their area of responsibility? Are officers familiar with patrol techniques, and are they performing their patrol functions effectively? Are reports complete and accurate? How many errors are observed in their reports?

patrol

Are follow-up calls made promptly in the interests of good investigative procedures and public relations? Are the officers thorough and systematic in their investigative activities? What percentage of their assigned cases is cleared by investigations? What percent is cleared by arrest resulting from investigations? Are clearance rates bona fide, that is, are they cleared by arrest or by investigative activity, or are there an excessive number cleared improperly by weak and inadequate modus operandi factors?

investigative

Do the employees complete their assigned projects promptly, thoroughly, and objectively? Do they practice the principles of delegated staff work, or do they require an inordinate amount of direction? Do their reports meet accepted standards for staff writings? Do their relations with operating personnel reflect a clear understanding of their organizational function as advisor rather than director?

staff and auxiliary

Many of the earlier systems, such as those of the military, used the technique of ranking all employees in a particular group according to their relative overall value to the organization. This method of “ranking” or “scaling” ratings is still widely used and ranks employees from highest to lowest in the unit or on the basis of most valuable to least valuable.

employee ranking standard

Accuracy may be improved when the rater compares each employee with others who have been selected as having the greatest value to the organization, those who are in the middle group having average value, and with those who are considered as having the least value. Raters are thus able to rank employees by comparing them with other representative employees whom they have selected through personal knowledge as having the greatest, average, or least value to the organization.

representative employee standard ranking

Instead of using selected employees who are representative of certain groups of personnel with varying values to the organization, ideal employee descriptions may be developed to avoid the necessity for changing criteria when the selected employees leave the unit or the organization or their performance becomes such that they can no longer be used as a pattern for ratings.

ideal employee standard ranking

When quantity of production is most important to an organization, descriptive standards may be used to advantage in measuring accomplishments. These are often expressed numerically; however, such measurements are difficult to apply to the many abstract traits that are important in police work. In a purely arithmetic method, the rater gives a numerical grade to each trait on the rating form according to the degree to which the employee possesses it

numerical standard ranking

Once traits are selected that are considered to be the most important indicators of quality of performance, several options can be provided from which the rater must select the one that most closely describes the performance of the person being rated. The options can be given a numerical value to indicate the subject’s overall rating, or the options may be classified in broad terms such as poor, fair, good, very good, excellent, or other descriptors indicative of the rater’s assessment of each trait.

forced choice standard ranking

can distinguish facts from feelings or impressions. are able to weigh the performance of their subordinates against a consistent standard, which they accomplish by establishing norms of conduct and performance as a point of departure for rating personnel. base their ratings on objective data whenever possible, without allowing subjective emotions, individual likes and dislikes, or biases to influence them. are careful to avoid committing the error of rating on the basis of vague general impressions and, instead, make every effort to rate on the basis of personal individual traits. are systematic and thorough in recording accurate data relating to their observations of employees throughout the rating period.

good rating supervisor characteristics

rater marks an inordinately large number of the rating reports in the highest one or two categories, such as very good and excellent, or excellent and outstanding, depending on the particular terminology used in the report form.

leniency

Raters often tend to rate higher than is justified those persons they know well and like as well as those who subscribe to the same opinions as the supervisor. Those who are not liked or who are not compatible with the supervisor’s own particular philosophies are likely to be rated lower than is justified.

personal bias

All too often, raters will group their ratings near the center of the rating scale, with few ratings at the bottom or top. This tendency to avoid the extremes on the rating scales usually results from a policy requiring justification for extreme ratings.

central tendency

The tendency of raters to rate in terms of a very general impression rather than on the basis of specific traits It occurs when the rater thinks in terms of “good” or “bad” , and groups all the ratings for an individual at the high or low end of the scale. This often happens when the rater has been unduly influenced by the error of related traits or the error of overweighting incidents, both of which are discussed in the following paragraphs.

halo or horns effect

Sometimes referred to as logical error or association error, the error is committed when the rater gives similar ratings to traits that seem to be similar. For example, this rating error is made in reports when raters assume that if people have good judgment, they must also have good presence of mind; if they are attentive to duty, they must have a high degree of initiative; if their physical health is good, their mental health must also be good; if they are dependable, they must also be cooperative; or if they make errors, they must be fatigued.

related traits

This rating error often occurs when one or more outstanding occurrences near the end of the rating period are out of proportion to the average performance during the entire period.

overweighting or recency

occurs when raters are unduly influenced by one or two characteristics that have special appeal to them. Cooperative or pleasant officers, for example, are sometimes rated much higher because of these traits than their overall performance justifies.

subjectivity

actually reflect the officer’s value to the organization in terms of specific traits that are related to work, such as amiability, industry, attention to duty, and cooperativeness.

validity

if it measures consistently and reasonably accurately (even if not perfectly) each time it is used. If several persons using the same information rate an individual substantially the same, their ratings would be a reliable measure of the employee’s abilities; however, raters rarely have the same abilities to observe, collect, and report evidence regarding the performance of subordinates with the same degree of accuracy and objectivity.

reliability

Some supervisors prefer to rate their subordinates individually, with the superior officer of the unit making a composite rating from the several individual appraisals, usually by a process of averaging the ratings. Occasionally, the ratings of the various supervisors will be identified on one composite report by use of numbers or symbols keyed to the names of the raters, which are listed on the form. The shortcomings of this method are readily apparent. Extreme ratings will tend to be in agreement, while midrange ratings will often be in conflict.

composite rating

In the police service, a common practice followed is to make group ratings of individual employees in a conference of supervisory officers. Some research has shown that use of multiple raters is a safeguard that prevents rater bias.17 For example, all first-line supervisors who have supervised the officer rated over the rating period rate him or her by conferring.

group rating

It is recommended by many who are experienced in the merit rating process that raters be encouraged to rate each employee on one characteristic at a time rather than to rate each employee completely before rating another. It is argued that the halo effect is increased when only one employee is considered at a time until his or her rating is completed because of the good or bad influence one trait has on another. However, if only one trait is considered at a time for all employees being rated, a more desirable norm can be achieved.

individual trait rating

The ——— should be to deploy available personnel and equipment rapidly in the initial stages to prevent escalation of the incident or aggravation of the circumstances.

principal objective

The sequences they will follow and the extent of their activities will depend largely on how well they organize, systematize, and delegate; how complex a police operation is required to control the incident and its effects; how many personnel they have immediately available and how proficient they are; and what equipment, supplies, facilities, and other support are available to them. They should also assess and communicate to a higher authority whatever other resources might be required in the immediate future if the occurrence becomes more acute.

factors that affect the supervisor’s ability to perform or cause to be performed the many tasks needed initial stages of an unusual occurrence

It should be easily identifiable on maps available to operating personnel and should permit radio communications without dead spots. It should be near the affected area but not exposed to attack or gunfire, fire, floodwaters, noxious gases, or other hazards. It should be located upwind from the affected area, if practicable, in those situations in which the use of tear gas might be necessary or if smoke or harmful gases may disrupt command post operations. If possible, it should be positioned near a power supply where electricity is available (if needed) to operate floodlights and mobile command post equipment. To prevent clogging of radio frequencies with the long messages often required and to provide continuous communications with headquarters, mobile phones should be used and kept available; portable equipment works well under these conditions. The command post’s location should provide a staging area for personnel and their equipment as they arrive. The supervisor should also consider the accessibility of routes to and from the scene for emergency equipment such as fire trucks and ambulances. Routes should be selected that are not unnecessarily exposed to man-made or natural dangers and that can be protected from persons who might attempt to ambush control or support personnel as they approach or leave the scene.

command post

Time usually operates to the advantage of the police in such cases. Any delaying tactics will enable them to prepare effective plans for dealing with the suspect. active listening, empathy, rapport, influence, behavioral change

approach with barricades

This system calls for the first responding officers to enter the structure and attempt to neutralize the suspect

active shooter

The gas should ordinarily be fired or thrown directly into the room where the suspect is believed to be. This will force him to take action to protect himself from it and will tend to divert his attention from the hostage. Such a technique will also prevent him from shutting a door and sealing off the room he occupies. 267 Grenades and projectiles that dispel dust are preferred to those that dispel gas by combustion, which cause considerable heat and often ignite curtains, upholstery, and other inflammable materials with which they come in contact. They also subject the hostage to another hazard—fire.

dust grenades

100

At times, the suspect will voluntarily leave his position to surrender after gas has been employed against him. Should this happen, he should be directed to drop his weapons, hold his hands high above his head with fingers spread, and move from the immediate scene toward the officers. The supervisor should admonish the officers not to leave their cover positions to approach the suspect but to require him to approach them. From their positions, they can cover him while he is being secured and searched.

barricaded arrest

dept rules

dept rules

penal law

penal law

Ncpd procedures

Ncpd procedures

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問題一覧

status differences affect communications

psychological size

noise in communication

harmful effects of fear of criticism on communication

filtering communication

how attitudes affect communications

overcome communication barriers

autocratic, democratic, free rein

catagories of communication

types of communications

newspaper style writing

main parts of writing

briefing

deficiencies in writing

The problem has become one of considerable significance to law enforcement agencies in light of the fact that one in four officers may have a problem

problem drinking and law enforcement

cause of problem drinking

stages of problem drinking

defense mechanisms used by problem drinker

The supervisor should actively listen without shock or surprise while encouraging employees to express their feelings, no matter how embarrassing they may be.

The importance of listening in counseling

nondirective counseling employee centered

good

supervisors obligated to

When counseling by the supervisor or intervention by a close friend is not feasible, employees might be directed to secure a

secure a medical examination

counselor avoid giving the problem drinker advice

useful for encouraging the employee to talk. They should also be used to obtain information or to lead the conversation toward matters that are more pertinent.

three main reasons for questions

employees ego

note taking during session

supervisor suggested professional help

to get problem drinkers to give up drinking, but also to lead them to the realization that they can never be a moderate drinker, and that they can never again use alcohol

objective of counseling

depression

suicidal warning signs

the work environment; harsh, abusive, tyrannical, or inept supervision; misunderstandings about policies and procedures of the organization; and management failures of various types.

four categories into which employee dissatisfaction can be grouped

cause of adverse reactions of employees

supervisor practices employees oppose

due process violation

formal grievance

positive discipline

negative discipline

certainty, swiftness, fairness and impartiality, consistently, deterrence for others

prerequisites of punishment

prerequisite of punishment that deters future behaviors

certainty

mistake of the head or heart

subordinates upward discipline against a superior

negative disciplinary actions are also training for others

morale

the most obvious indicator that morale is slumping is a general deterioration in the

appearance of personnel

Esprit de corps

how discipline, morale, and esprit de corps are interrelated

is usually accompanied by a high level of discipline and esprit de corps.

high morale

indicators of morale

adverse effects when an employee is reinstated after appeals dismissal.

inquiry into every complaint

to protect the integrity and reputation of the force, to protect the public interest, and to protect the accused employee from unjust accusation.

objectives of personnel investigation policy

sovereign immunity

empty pockets

respondeat superior

personal liability a supervisor might have

internal

those received directly from alleged victims of police action or debtors

primary complaints

secondary complaints

anonymous complaint

complaints by intoxicated person

personnel

complainant and the accused employee together in a face-to-face encounter

general procedure

criminal offense

employee searches

personnel investigation report

training

evaluation systems

rating system failures

The critical incident technique

Rating traits and abilities

sub categories

patrol

investigative

staff and auxiliary

employee ranking standard

representative employee standard ranking

ideal employee standard ranking

numerical standard ranking

forced choice standard ranking

good rating supervisor characteristics

leniency

personal bias

central tendency

halo or horns effect

related traits

This rating error often occurs when one or more outstanding occurrences near the end of the rating period are out of proportion to the average performance during the entire period.

overweighting or recency

subjectivity

actually reflect the officer’s value to the organization in terms of specific traits that are related to work, such as amiability, industry, attention to duty, and cooperativeness.

validity

reliability

composite rating

group rating

individual trait rating

The ——— should be to deploy available personnel and equipment rapidly in the initial stages to prevent escalation of the incident or aggravation of the circumstances.

principal objective

factors that affect the supervisor’s ability to perform or cause to be performed the many tasks needed initial stages of an unusual occurrence

command post

approach with barricades

This system calls for the first responding officers to enter the structure and attempt to neutralize the suspect

active shooter

dust grenades

100

barricaded arrest