Pyramidal neurons known as Betz cells are located in layer V of the human cerebral cortex and use glutamate as their neurotransmitter

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An ischemic stroke that impairs function of the left primary motor cortex could lead to skeletal muscle paralysis on the right side of the body, In most people, a hemorrhagic stroke of the left middle cerebral artery, could lead to a loss of the ability to comprehend language

The emergence of bilateral symmetry is associated with the evolution of neurons with specialized functions, including sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons that are interposed between sensory and motor neurons

All of the above

All of the above

Tight junctions between endothelial cells of cerebral capillaries are an important component of the BBB, Enzymes with the ability to breakdown potentially harmful substances form a ‘metabolic barrier’ that prevents some substances from gain access to the brain

Glucose is a primary energy source for neurons in the brain, Both fast and slow axonal transport uses microtubules and molecular motors for the movement of cargo down the axon

Dendritic spines have polyribosomes that can undergo translation in response to synaptic inputs

during development, Schwann cells differentiate from neural crystals that delaminate from the embryonic neural tube

Adaptive violation in the CNS is a program of deposition and remodeling of myelin initially formed by oligodendrocytes during development that continues into adulthood and is responsive to an animal’s experience

Despite the regenerative capacity of the PNS, new myelin sheaths that form following an injury are significantly thinner than the original sheaths that formed during development, PNS nerve injury, induces a complex series of cellular events that take place as he axons distal to the injury site undergo Wallerian degeneration

Chordin, noggin, and follistatin are all secreted proteins that bind to and activate BMP4 , cells of the neural crest differentiate into sensory afferent neurons and Schwann cells, but not motor neurons

Hox genes encode transcription factors that specify segment identity , Collinearity is the correlation between the sequential order of Hox genes along a chromosome (3’ - 5’) and their expression along the axis of an embryo , The notochord is an important source of the Sonic hedgehog morphogen during differentiation of the neural tube

During process outgrowth, filopodia of the growth cone extend and retract due to the polymerization and depolymerization of actin filaments , Cell adhesion molecules of the integrin family participate in cell to substrate adhesion , Netrin is a diffusible protein that acts as a chemoattractant during the migration of spinal commissural axons

Muscle fibers initially receive inputs from multiple alpha-motor neurons, but by the end of embryogenesis, each muscle fiber has a single NMJ from only one alpha motor neuron

pre-ganglionic neurons of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system release acetylcholine, The cell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic neurons are located in the intermediolateral cell column

Both SA node cells and cells of the radius muscle of the iris have adernergic receptors that bind to norepinephrine , In a sinoatrial cell, acetylcholine acts through muscarinic M2 receptors to indirectly increase K+ efflux and hyperpolarize the cell , Acetylcholine binds to muscarinic receptors on sphincter smooth muscle cells of the iris

A drug that binds to the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor on cardiac SA node cells and blocks the action of acetylcholine, would lead to an increase in heart rate

Enterochromaffin cells of the intestine respond to mechanical stretch and release serotonin into the submucosal region , Intrinsic primary afferent neurons activate excitatory and inhibitory motor neurons to generate peristaltic contractions of intestinal smooth muscle , Sympathetic stimulation decreases GI tract motility and parasympathetic stimultion increases GI tract motility

The cell bodies of the alpha motor neurons are located in the ventral horn gray matter of the spinal cord , In mammalian skeletal muscle, a single muscle fiber is innervated by only one alpha motor neuron

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors can be used to alleviate symptoms, Is associated with muscle weakness, Is associated with auto antibodies that recognize and block the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

The binding of Ca2+ to troponin leads to a shift in the tropomyosin protein that exposes myosin binding sites on actin , Exit from the rigor state requires the binding of ATP to the myosin head group

Type IIb (fast glycolytic) fibers generate more force than the other fiber types and are recruited last during muscle contraction , Type I (slow oxidative) fibers have abundant mitochondria and generate ATP primarily by oxidative phosphorylation

Skeletal myscles are a mixture of Type I, Type IIa, and Type IIb fiber types , During development, myoblasts fuse together to form a multi-nucleate muscle fiber