protein synthesis, gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis

proteolysis, lipolysis, glycogenolysis

promotes growth , activates PDE enzymes, accelerated amino acid transport into the cells, accelerates K transport into the cells

aa, epi, GIP, inhibitors of ATP regulated inwardly rectifying K channels

GLP, glucose, aa, glucagon

intestine, pancreas beta cells, cornea

the closure of KATP channels results in depolarization, depolarization if beta cells induces insulin secretion, glucose enters via GLUT2

electrolyte loss, abnormally high plasma glucose, metabolic acidosis, increased rate of glucose filtration in the kidney

can lead to increased protein breakdown in the muscle

type2 diabetes can be treated by increasing insulin secretion of beta cells, type1 diabetes frequently appears prior to age20

aa, catecholamimes, cortisol

increased glucose output from the liver, increased plasma glucose level

stimulates insulin secretion, is produced by pancreatic alpha, stimulates gluconeogenesis and glucose output of the liver, induces its effects via Gs GPCR

stimulated by GH, stimulated by basic aa, hypoglycemia stimulates it

aa, glycerol, lactate, G1P, G6P

accelerates the conversion of aa into glucose in the liver, accelerates the conversion of lactic acid into glucose in the liver, accelerates the conversion of glycerol into glucose in the liver

facilitated by catecholamimes, secreted by the a cell, secretion is stimulated by high levels of plasma aa

glucagon, GH

cortisol, glucagon, GH, epinepjrine

increased glucose output from the liver, increased plasma glucose level, increased lactate production from skeletal muscle, liver glycogen is decreased

plasma glucose level increase, secretion of glucocorticoids is increased, insulin sensitivity decreases

brain, cornea, testis, RBC

proteolysis is increased, glucagon level is increased, gluconeogenesis is increased

the liver is the main source of glucose

stimulate glucagon synthesis, inhibit insulin secretion, stimulate skeletal muscle glycogenolysis, stimulate hepatic glycogenolysis

glucagon, epinephrine, GH, cortisol

7.8 11.1