This experience does not have to affect the learner directly; we can learn vicariously by observing events that affect others

assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events, as opposed to internal thought processes.

occurs when a stimulus that naturally elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own.

can occur for more complex reactions to stimuli as well. Even a credit card becomes a conditioned cue that triggers greater spending, especially since it is a stimulus present only in situations in which consumers are spending money.

refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke similar conditioned responses. People react to other similar stimuli in much the same way as they respond to an original stimulus.

occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by a UCS. In these situations reactions are weakened and will soon disappear. Part of the learning process involves learning to respond to some stimuli but not to other similar stimuli.

These conditioned associations are crucial to many marketing strategies that rely on the creation and perpetuation of positive brand equity, in which a brand has strong positive associations in a consumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.

which a variety of products capitalize on the reputation of a company name.

in which related products are added to an established brand.

in which well-known names are “rented” by others. This strategy is increasing in popularity as marketers try to link their products and services with well-established brands.

in which distinctive packaging designs create strong associations with a particular brand.

also known as operant conditioning, occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and to avoid behaviours that yield negative outcomes.

form of a reward, the response is strengthened and appropriate behaviour is learned.

removes something negative in a way that increases a desired response.

occurs when a response is followed by an unpleasant event.

Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses.

The behaviour of a person is reinforced after a certain number of responses, but he or she does not know how many responses are required.

After a specified time period has passed, the first response that is made brings the reward.

The time that must pass before reinforcement is delivered varies around some average.

are at work when a consumer is rewarded or punished for a purchase decision.

reinforces the behaviour of regular purchasers by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the amount purchased.

One fast-growing tactic used by companies that capitalizes on operant conditioning principles

stresses the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment.

propose that an incoming piece of information is stored in an associative network containing many bits of related information organized according to some set of relationships.

the existing product is called the base (as it is the original source of knowledge) and the new product is called the target (as this is what the existing knowledge will be transferred to).