AP WORLD FINAL

116問 • 1年前

問題一覧

Two scenes from sewing and reaping, a yuan dynasty copy of song dynasty illustrated scroll about the practice of rice cultivation in China Which one best illustrates, which of the following features of the Chinese economy in the period 1200 to 1450?

Technological innovations, increased agricultural fields

Two scenes from sowing and reaping, a yuan dynasty copy of a song dynasty illustrated scroll about the practice of rice cultivation in china The activities are featured in image to best illustrates, which of the following characteristics of China economy before 1450?

The reliance of systems of peasant labor

Two scenes from the sowing and reaping, a yuan dynasty copy of the song dynasty illustrated scroll about the practice of rice cultivation in china Which of the following best describes how European labor systems before 1450 differed from Chinese labor systems depicted in the two images?

European labor systems were more likely to utilize surfdom

Sponsoring of scholarship by Turkish dynasties such as the Tim Roids best shows that in a period circa 1200 to 1450 scholarly activities in the Muslim world continue despite the

Fragmentation of the Abbasid caliphate

Muslim scholars incorporation of cultural and intellectual influences from previous Islamic societies can be best used as evidence that

muslim states and empires were central to the process of intellectual transfer in Eurasia

The 19th century monument pictured above located on the island of Java in present Day Indonesia, best exemplifies, which of the following historical processes?

The spread of universalizing religions beyond their place of origin

“Wila Uma, the Inca general, addressed the Spanish [conquistadors] with the following words: ‘What are you doing to our ruler?* This is how you repay his good will? Did he not command all of his people to give you tribute? Did he not give you a house filled with gold and silver? Did he not give you his servants to serve you? What more can he give you now that you have imprisoned him? All the people of this land are so distressed by your actions, because they have lost all they possess, and their distress leaves them no choice but to hang themselves or risk everything by rebelling. Thus, I believe it would be best for you to release him from this prison to lessen the grief of these people.’ . . . *Manco Inca, a previous Inca ruler and father of Titu Cusi, whom the Spanish had imprisoned after conquering the Inca capital of Cuzco in 1533 Titu Cusi, ruler of a regional Inca state established after the Spanish had conquered the Inca Empire, letter to the Spanish king detailing the abuses of the Spanish during the conquest, 1570 The sentiments expressed by Wila Uma in the passage most clearly illustrate which of the following aspects of the Inca state?

The importance of the Inca ruler to the empire

“The East African coast was certainly known to the people of Arabia by the eighth century b.c.e. In fact, the ancient Southern Arabian state of Ausan traded extensively there and may have actually held a portion of the coast. Traders who reached the coast discovered a number of potentially valuable raw materials there. Among these were spices, tortoise shell, coconut oil, ivory, and later, gold and slaves. It was not until almost 1000 c.e., however, that the first important commercial city-states emerged along the coast. These city-states fluctuated in wealth and prestige as they competed for coastal hegemony. Because of their way of life, they tended to have a broad regional perspective. Their destinies and fortunes were at least partly determined in distant lands by foreign merchants and rulers. Information on early political aspects of East African states remains very limited. We know that they had kings or sultans, who wielded a good deal of power. Sultans were advised by councils of princes, elders, and members of the ruling household. It seems probable that the sultan and his close relatives controlled the religious and military offices of the state.” Terry H. Elkiss, historian, “Kilwa Kisiwani: The Rise of an East African City-State,” article published in African Studies Review, a scholarly journal, 1973. The example of an ancient Arabian state that traded extensively and controlled territories on the East African coast can best be used as evidence of

The long-term continuities in state building in coastal east Africa

“The East African coast was certainly known to the people of Arabia by the eighth century b.c.e. In fact, the ancient Southern Arabian state of Ausan traded extensively there and may have actually held a portion of the coast. Traders who reached the coast discovered a number of potentially valuable raw materials there. Among these were spices, tortoise shell, coconut oil, ivory, and later, gold and slaves. It was not until almost 1000 c.e., however, that the first important commercial city-states emerged along the coast. These city-states fluctuated in wealth and prestige as they competed for coastal hegemony. Because of their way of life, they tended to have a broad regional perspective. Their destinies and fortunes were at least partly determined in distant lands by foreign merchants and rulers. Information on early political aspects of East African states remains very limited. We know that they had kings or sultans, who wielded a good deal of power. Sultans were advised by councils of princes, elders, and members of the ruling household. It seems probable that the sultan and his close relatives controlled the religious and military offices of the state.” Terry H. Elkiss, historian, “Kilwa Kisiwani: The Rise of an East African City-State,” article published in African Studies Review, a scholarly journal, 1973. The regional connections of states such as those on the east African coast could be best used as an illustration of the Continued importance of which of the following

Long distance trade

The act of the counts of burn in the image is most closely identified with which of the following political systems?

feudalism

The image most directly illustrates, which of the following features of the political development of medieval Europe?

Is decentralization as Europe rulers frequently delegated authority to local subordinates

In your political relationships of the type depicted in the image emerge most directly on account of which of the following developments

Local elites needs for military, protect protection from more powerful Lords

One of the things that struck me most in Peru was its great, splendid highways, and I wondered how many men it must have required to build them and what tools and instruments were used to level the mountains and cut through the rock to make them as broad and good as they are. It seems to me that if the king of Spain wanted to build a highway from Quito to Cuzco, I do not think that he could do it even with all of his power unless he followed the method that the Inca employed. When an Inca king decided to build one of these highways, all he needed to do was give the command. Then, the inspectors would go through the provinces, laying out the highway’s route and assigning Indians to help build the road. In this way, the road was built in a short time from one boundary of the kingdom to the other. The Inca rulers built many of these roads and were so full of pride that when one ruler died, his heir would build his road larger and broader if he intended to set out on a conquest.” Pedro Cieza de León, Spanish soldier and historian, Chronicles of Peru, 1553 Which of the following pieces of evidence most strongly supports the author’s arguments about the quality of the highways described in the passage?

They were very broad and some extended across the entire kingdom

One of the things that struck me most in Peru was its great, splendid highways, and I wondered how many men it must have required to build them and what tools and instruments were used to level the mountains and cut through the rock to make them as broad and good as they are. It seems to me that if the king of Spain wanted to build a highway from Quito to Cuzco, I do not think that he could do it even with all of his power unless he followed the method that the Inca employed. When an Inca king decided to build one of these highways, all he needed to do was give the command. Then, the inspectors would go through the provinces, laying out the highway’s route and assigning Indians to help build the road. In this way, the road was built in a short time from one boundary of the kingdom to the other. The Inca rulers built many of these roads and were so full of pride that when one ruler died, his heir would build his road larger and broader if he intended to set out on a conquest.” Pedro Cieza de León, Spanish soldier and historian, Chronicles of Peru, 1553 Which of the following features of evidence is the author use to support his argument about the part of the anchor rulers in the second paragraph?

Inca rulers tried to construct bigger and brought our highs than their predecessors if they wanted to undertake conquest

The illustration would be best useful to his historian studying, which of the following

Transportation in Maritime technologies

Which of the following best describes the primary purpose of the travel depicted In that illustration

To buy diverse communities to a common tradition

Source 1: “[In the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries] Europeans derived more profit from their participation in trade within Asia than they did from their Asian imports into Europe. They were able to do so ultimately only thanks to their American silver. . . . Only their American money, and not any ‘exceptional’ European ‘qualities’ permitted the Europeans [to access Asian markets]. . . . However, even with that resource and advantage, the Europeans were no more than a minor player at the Asian, indeed world, economic table [until the nineteenth century].” Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age, 1996 Source 2: “The societies of Europe had been at the margins of the great trading systems, but they were at the center of the global networks of exchange created during the sixteenth century because they controlled the oceangoing fleets that knit the world into a single system. Western Europe was better placed than any other region to profit from the vast flows of goods and ideas within the emerging global system of exchange. . . . [European states] were keen to exploit the commercial opportunities created within the global economic system. They did so partly by seizing the resources of the Americas and using American commodities such as silver to buy their way into the markets of southern and eastern Asia, the largest in the world.” David Christian, This Fleeting World: A Short History of Humanity, 2008 The trade networks described by the two sources were most strongly influenced by

increase European demand for luxury goods

Source 1: “[In the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries] Europeans derived more profit from their participation in trade within Asia than they did from their Asian imports into Europe. They were able to do so ultimately only thanks to their American silver. . . . Only their American money, and not any ‘exceptional’ European ‘qualities’ permitted the Europeans [to access Asian markets]. . . . However, even with that resource and advantage, the Europeans were no more than a minor player at the Asian, indeed world, economic table [until the nineteenth century].” Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age, 1996 Source 2: “The societies of Europe had been at the margins of the great trading systems, but they were at the center of the global networks of exchange created during the sixteenth century because they controlled the oceangoing fleets that knit the world into a single system. Western Europe was better placed than any other region to profit from the vast flows of goods and ideas within the emerging global system of exchange. . . . [European states] were keen to exploit the commercial opportunities created within the global economic system. They did so partly by seizing the resources of the Americas and using American commodities such as silver to buy their way into the markets of southern and eastern Asia, the largest in the world.” David Christian, This Fleeting World: A Short History of Humanity, 2008 Which of the following earlier developments contributed moist directly to the importance of the Asian market during the Early modern period as described by both passages?

The commercialization of Chinese economy under the song, and Ming dynasties

innovations and transportation and commercial technologies, such as the caravanserai

Which of the following contributed most directly to an increase in trade along the routes of the map?

The expansion of empire such as Mali and West Africa

The spread of which of the following religious traditions was most directly facilitated by trade along the route show on the map?

Islam

Which of the following best describes a way in which the table illustrates how the spread of rice cultivation contributed to the change of amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops in China India in the Middle East between 1200 and 1300

The total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops declined in all three regions

Which of the following best describes a weight in which a table illustrates how an emphasis of weak cultivation in Europe affected the total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops there compared with the rice producing regions of China and India between 1200 and 1300.

The total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops, increased considerably in Europe and declined in China and Asia

Which of the following best describes how the table illustrates the effect of the spread of the bubonic plague on the total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops in Europe in the Middle East between 1300 and 1400

The total amount of land devoted to the production of agricultural crops decline substantially in Europe and slightly in the Middle East

The essence of education, our traditional national aim, is to promote benevolence, justice, loyalty, filial piety, and knowledge and skill. But recently, people have been going to extremes by embracing a foreign civilization whose only values are fact-gathering and technical-skill. These values bring harm to our customary ways. We try to incorporate the best features of foreigners in order to achieve the lofty goals that the Meiji emperor desires. We have tried to abandon the undesirable practices of the past and learn from the outside world. But these policies have had a serious defect. They have reduced benevolence, justice, loyalty, and filial piety to secondary goals. If we indiscriminately imitate foreign ways, our people will forget the great principles governing the relations between ruler and subject and the relations between father and son.” Motoday Nagazane, adviser to the Meiji emperor, treatise written following a tour of Japanese schools with the emperor, 1879 The ideals of traditional Japanese education that the author praises in the passage are most closely aligned with the social ideals advocated by which of the following?

Confucianism

“[Under the Song dynasty], the number of men who were granted degrees [by passing the imperial examinations] suddenly rose, indicating a similar rise in the number of candidates. This was made possible by an increase in China’s productive power and the consequent accumulation of wealth. . . . A new class appeared in China [under the Song], comparable to the middle class in early modern Europe. In China this newly risen class concentrated hard on scholarship. . . . In principle [the examination system] was open to all qualified applicants regardless of social background, which made it unusually democratic. . . . But for a candidate to continue his studies without interruption for such a long period required a measure of economic support that was simply not available to poor people. . . . [Thus] the contention that the doors of the examination system were open to all applicants was an exaggeration, of course. . . . [Yet] we must not lose sight of the historical context: the very idea that everyone should be eligible for the examinations, regardless of family background or lineage, was incomparably forward-looking in its day. . . . It is true that the examinations not only produced officials loyal to the state but also, at times, resentful rejected applicants who opposed the system. Yet, when an old dynasty was replaced by a new, the latter usually undertook an early revival of the examination system practically unchanged.” Ichisada Miyazaki, historian, China’s Examination Hell, book published in 1963 All of the following developments in Song dynasty China were important factors in the accumulation of wealth outlined in the first paragraph EXCEPT

Increased Chinese involvement in the Indian Ocean trade

“[Under the Song dynasty], the number of men who were granted degrees [by passing the imperial examinations] suddenly rose, indicating a similar rise in the number of candidates. This was made possible by an increase in China’s productive power and the consequent accumulation of wealth. . . . A new class appeared in China [under the Song], comparable to the middle class in early modern Europe. In China this newly risen class concentrated hard on scholarship. . . . In principle [the examination system] was open to all qualified applicants regardless of social background, which made it unusually democratic. . . . But for a candidate to continue his studies without interruption for such a long period required a measure of economic support that was simply not available to poor people. . . . [Thus] the contention that the doors of the examination system were open to all applicants was an exaggeration, of course. . . . [Yet] we must not lose sight of the historical context: the very idea that everyone should be eligible for the examinations, regardless of family background or lineage, was incomparably forward-looking in its day. . . . It is true that the examinations not only produced officials loyal to the state but also, at times, resentful rejected applicants who opposed the system. Yet, when an old dynasty was replaced by a new, the latter usually undertook an early revival of the examination system practically unchanged.” Ichisada Miyazaki, historian, China’s Examination Hell, book published in 1963 Which of the following statements from the second paragraph most directly supports the claim that the examination system Strengthened the Chinese states?

The statement that “ when an old dynasty was replaced by a new, the ladder usually undertook an early revival of an examination system, practically unchanged”

“[Under the Song dynasty], the number of men who were granted degrees [by passing the imperial examinations] suddenly rose, indicating a similar rise in the number of candidates. This was made possible by an increase in China’s productive power and the consequent accumulation of wealth. . . . A new class appeared in China [under the Song], comparable to the middle class in early modern Europe. In China this newly risen class concentrated hard on scholarship. . . . In principle [the examination system] was open to all qualified applicants regardless of social background, which made it unusually democratic. . . . But for a candidate to continue his studies without interruption for such a long period required a measure of economic support that was simply not available to poor people. . . . [Thus] the contention that the doors of the examination system were open to all applicants was an exaggeration, of course. . . . [Yet] we must not lose sight of the historical context: the very idea that everyone should be eligible for the examinations, regardless of family background or lineage, was incomparably forward-looking in its day. . . . It is true that the examinations not only produced officials loyal to the state but also, at times, resentful rejected applicants who opposed the system. Yet, when an old dynasty was replaced by a new, the latter usually undertook an early revival of the examination system practically unchanged.” Ichisada Miyazaki, historian, China’s Examination Hell, book published in 1963 Which of the following best describes the authors claim about the Chinese examination system in the second paragraph?

The system provided limited but important opportunities for social advancement in Chinese society

The mortality Depicted in the image most directly contributed to which of the following changes in Europe in the late 14th and 15th centuries?

The decline of serfdom

The burial depicted in the image, most likely resulted from the spread of which of the following?

Bubonic plague

Which of the following best explains why in the mid 14th century events of the type depicted in the image were more common in urban areas of Africa, Asia than rural areas of mountainous regions?

The disease principally spread along trade routes, and most commerce occurred in urban areas

Which of the following best explains why the continuity in the trade routes between east Africa, the Arabian Peninsula in India, as shown on the maps?

Trade along the routes to relied on sailor’s knowledge of the monsoon winds

The maritime trait connections Involving east Africa shown on map one provided a setting for which of the following developments?

The spread of Islam

Image 1 could be best use as evidence of the ways in which

Imperial states attempted to expand commercial activity

The commercial practice shown in the image emerged in order to

Facilitate a growing trade in luxury goods by providing greater access to credit and currency

The author’s portrayal of the activities shown in image 2 is most directly informed by

Christian religious ideals

All of the following statements above the use of the currency shown in image 1 In China under the yuan Dynasty are factually accurate. Which best explains why the currency often led to hyper inflation?

Excessive amounts of currency were printed in order to fund military expeditions and reward local elites

Which of the following most likely explains why the scroll was copied for a new audience in 1350?

Mongols adopted and spread technological innovations from regions within their empire

Which of the following best describes how European labor systems before 1450 differed from the Chinese labor system depicted in the two images?

European labor systems were more likely to utilize serfdom

“[D]espite his ferocity, his military genius and his shrewd adaptation of tribal politics to his imperial purpose, Tamerlane’s* system fell apart at his death. As he himself may have grasped intuitively, it was no longer possible to. . . build a Eurasian empire on [nomadic] foundations. . . . The Ottomans, the Mamluk state in Egypt and Syria, the Muslim sultanate in northern India, and above all China were too resilient to be swept away by his lightning campaigns. Indeed Tamerlane’s death marked in several ways the end of a long phase in global history. His empire was the last real attempt to challenge the partition of Eurasia between the states of the Far West, Islamic Middle Eurasia and Confucian East Asia. Secondly, his political experiments and ultimate failure revealed that power had begun to shift back decisively from the nomad empires to the settled states. . . . Lastly, his passing coincided with the first signs of a change in the existing pattern of long-distance trade, the [overland Silk Road route] that he had fought to control. Within a few decades after his death, the idea of a world empire ruled from Samarkand [Tamerlane’s Central Asian capital] had become [a fantasy].” *a Turko-Mongolic ruler who conquered much of Central Asia and the Middle East in the late 1300s and early 1400s. John Darwin, British historian, After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000, published in 2008 Which of the following developments in the late fifteenth century could best be used as evidence to support Darwin’s argument in the second paragraph regarding a change in patterns of long-distance trade?

The discovery of maritime routes that linked Europe and Asia through the Indian Ocean

“[D]espite his ferocity, his military genius and his shrewd adaptation of tribal politics to his imperial purpose, Tamerlane’s* system fell apart at his death. As he himself may have grasped intuitively, it was no longer possible to. . . build a Eurasian empire on [nomadic] foundations. . . . The Ottomans, the Mamluk state in Egypt and Syria, the Muslim sultanate in northern India, and above all China were too resilient to be swept away by his lightning campaigns. Indeed Tamerlane’s death marked in several ways the end of a long phase in global history. His empire was the last real attempt to challenge the partition of Eurasia between the states of the Far West, Islamic Middle Eurasia and Confucian East Asia. Secondly, his political experiments and ultimate failure revealed that power had begun to shift back decisively from the nomad empires to the settled states. . . . Lastly, his passing coincided with the first signs of a change in the existing pattern of long-distance trade, the [overland Silk Road route] that he had fought to control. Within a few decades after his death, the idea of a world empire ruled from Samarkand [Tamerlane’s Central Asian capital] had become [a fantasy].” *a Turko-Mongolic ruler who conquered much of Central Asia and the Middle East in the late 1300s and early 1400s. John Darwin, British historian, After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000, published in 2008 Which of the following most strongly contributed to the shift of power from nomadic empires to settled states that Darwin identifies in the second paragraph?

The development and spread of gunpowder weapons across Eurasia

“[D]espite his ferocity, his military genius and his shrewd adaptation of tribal politics to his imperial purpose, Tamerlane’s* system fell apart at his death. As he himself may have grasped intuitively, it was no longer possible to. . . build a Eurasian empire on [nomadic] foundations. . . . The Ottomans, the Mamluk state in Egypt and Syria, the Muslim sultanate in northern India, and above all China were too resilient to be swept away by his lightning campaigns. Indeed Tamerlane’s death marked in several ways the end of a long phase in global history. His empire was the last real attempt to challenge the partition of Eurasia between the states of the Far West, Islamic Middle Eurasia and Confucian East Asia. Secondly, his political experiments and ultimate failure revealed that power had begun to shift back decisively from the nomad empires to the settled states. . . . Lastly, his passing coincided with the first signs of a change in the existing pattern of long-distance trade, the [overland Silk Road route] that he had fought to control. Within a few decades after his death, the idea of a world empire ruled from Samarkand [Tamerlane’s Central Asian capital] had become [a fantasy].” *a Turko-Mongolic ruler who conquered much of Central Asia and the Middle East in the late 1300s and early 1400s. John Darwin, British historian, After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000, published in 2008 All of the following statements about nomadic empires in the period 1200–1700 are factually accurate. Which statement most likely explains why Tamerlane’s empire rapidly declined in the late fifteenth century?

Nomadic empires typically contained numerous tribes and confederations that were difficult to control.

The Muslims are not the greatest traders in Asia, though they are dispersed in almost every part of it. In Ottoman Turkey, the Christians and Jews carry on the main foreign trade, and in Persia the Armenian Christians and Indians. As to the Persians, they trade with their own countrymen, one province with another, and most of them trade with the Indians. The Armenian Christians manage alone the whole European trade [with Persia]. The abundance of the Persian silk that is exported is very well known. The Dutch import it into Europe via the Indian Ocean to the value of near six hundred thousand livres* yearly. All the Europeans who trade in Ottoman Turkey import nothing more valuable than the Persian silks, which they buy from the Armenians. The Russians import it as well. Persia exports to the Indies [an] abundance of tobacco, all sorts of fruit, marmalade, wines, horses, ceramics, feathers, and Turkish leather of all colors, of which a great amount is exported to Russia and other European countries. The exportation of steel and iron is forbidden in the kingdom, but it is exported notwithstanding. There are some Persian traders who have deputies in all parts of the world, as far as Sweden on the one side and China on the other side.” *French currency unit Jean Chardin, French jeweler and merchant, on his travels to Safavid Persia, 1686 Which of the following most directly caused a disruption in the land-based trade of the Safavid empire during the period circa 1500–1750 ?

Conflicts between the Shi‘a Safavids and neighboring Sunni empires

Taken together, the two images best support which of the following claims regarding developments in the period from 1450-1750?

Gunpowder technology facilitated the expansion of land based empires

The two dynasties whose expansion are illustrated by the images shared which of the following?

Their rulers were descended from Turkic peoples of central Asian descent

The ottoman practices shown in the two images directly contributed to which of the following developments before 1600?

Large scale ottoman conquests in the Middle East and North Africa

Which of the following most likely explains the inclusion of image 2 in a court history of the Ottoman Empire?

To glorify power by referring back to a celebrated era of ottoman history

In the 16th and 17th centuries, many states responded to threats of the type depicted in the two images by

seeking to increase tax revenues and professionalize their militaries

The spread of new cultural ideas, such as those illustrated by the religious beliefs of Xu Guangxi and Candida Xu, most strongly encouraged some Asian governments in Eurasia in the period 1450–1750 to

limit trade and other contacts with foreigners

Which of the following developments in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries most directly helps to explain the presence of the scholars shown in the image of China?

The Protestant Reformation led the Catholic Church to seek new converts outside of Europe.

All of the following statements about Du Halde are factually accurate. Which would most likely lead historians to question the objectivity of his portrayal of the scholars shown in the image?

He was a Jesuit and based his book on Jesuit missionary reports.

Which of the following was the most likely purpose of the portraits of the emperor?

To glorify his rule through the sponsorship of artworks

The portrait of emperor jahangir in image 1 was most likely a symbolic representation of which of the following?

The expanding power of the Mughal empire

Which of the following most likely describes the fate of the Golconda state after 1650?

It was conquered by the Mughal empire

“To the count of Katzenellenbogen, Ziegenhain, and Nidda, my gracious lord. Pope Leo X, in the bull in which he put me under the ban, condemned my statement that ‘to fight against the Turk is the same thing as resisting God, who visits our sin upon us with this rod.’ I still confess freely that this statement is mine. The popes and bishops called for war against the Turks in the name of Christ. Yet because Christ taught that Christians shall not resist evil with violence or take revenge, it is against His name. In how many wars against the Turks have the bishops and clergy prevented Christians from enduring heavy losses? Indeed, the king of Hungary and his bishops were beaten by the Turks at Varna* and more recently a German army would perhaps have fought with more success, if it had not contained priests. If I were an emperor, a king, or a prince in a campaign against the Turks, I would encourage my bishops and priests to stay at home and mind the duties of their office, praying, fasting, saying mass, preaching, and caring for the poor, as not only Holy Scripture, but their own canon law teaches and requires. To this I say Amen, Amen.” *a reference to a failed Christian Crusade launched against the Ottoman Turks in 1444 Martin Luther, German theologian, sermon addressed to a German prince, 1528 A historian interpreting the views expressed in the passage would likely explain that those views were most strongly influenced by Protestant desires to

reform Christian society by adhering more closely to biblical teachings

“To the count of Katzenellenbogen, Ziegenhain, and Nidda, my gracious lord. Pope Leo X, in the bull in which he put me under the ban, condemned my statement that ‘to fight against the Turk is the same thing as resisting God, who visits our sin upon us with this rod.’ I still confess freely that this statement is mine. The popes and bishops called for war against the Turks in the name of Christ. Yet because Christ taught that Christians shall not resist evil with violence or take revenge, it is against His name. In how many wars against the Turks have the bishops and clergy prevented Christians from enduring heavy losses? Indeed, the king of Hungary and his bishops were beaten by the Turks at Varna* and more recently a German army would perhaps have fought with more success, if it had not contained priests. If I were an emperor, a king, or a prince in a campaign against the Turks, I would encourage my bishops and priests to stay at home and mind the duties of their office, praying, fasting, saying mass, preaching, and caring for the poor, as not only Holy Scripture, but their own canon law teaches and requires. To this I say Amen, Amen.” *a reference to a failed Christian Crusade launched against the Ottoman Turks in 1444 Martin Luther, German theologian, sermon addressed to a German prince, 1528 A historian could best explain the arguments made in the passage regarding the pope and the clergy in the context of Protestant claims that the Catholic Church

had become corrupt by power

“To the count of Katzenellenbogen, Ziegenhain, and Nidda, my gracious lord. Pope Leo X, in the bull in which he put me under the ban, condemned my statement that ‘to fight against the Turk is the same thing as resisting God, who visits our sin upon us with this rod.’ I still confess freely that this statement is mine. The popes and bishops called for war against the Turks in the name of Christ. Yet because Christ taught that Christians shall not resist evil with violence or take revenge, it is against His name. In how many wars against the Turks have the bishops and clergy prevented Christians from enduring heavy losses? Indeed, the king of Hungary and his bishops were beaten by the Turks at Varna* and more recently a German army would perhaps have fought with more success, if it had not contained priests. If I were an emperor, a king, or a prince in a campaign against the Turks, I would encourage my bishops and priests to stay at home and mind the duties of their office, praying, fasting, saying mass, preaching, and caring for the poor, as not only Holy Scripture, but their own canon law teaches and requires. To this I say Amen, Amen.” *a reference to a failed Christian Crusade launched against the Ottoman Turks in 1444 Martin Luther, German theologian, sermon addressed to a German prince, 1528 A historian interpreting the passage would most likely explain that the audience of the sermon is an illustration of the fact that

political support from the German nobility aided in the development of the early Protestant community

Source 1 “People who follow Judaism should pass their lives among Christians quietly, practicing their own religion and not speaking ill of Christianity. Moreover, a Jewish person should not attempt to convert any Christian. Whoever violates this law shall be put to death and lose his property. Jewish people may maintain their synagogues, but they cannot build new synagogues without our permission. Christians may not deface synagogues or steal anything from them. Jewish people shall not be forced to attend court by Christian officials on Saturdays [the Jewish Sabbath]. All legal claims between Christians and the Jewish community shall be decided by our royal judges and a Christian is forbidden from arresting or harming Jewish people or seizing their property. Christians may not use force to convert a Jewish person to Christianity, though Christians should use the Holy Scriptures and kind words. Jewish people, however, should not attempt to interfere with a member of their community converting to Christianity of their own will. Any Christian, however, who converts to Judaism shall be put to death as a heretic.” Law code issued by Alfonso X, king of the Christian Spanish kingdom of Castile, circa 1265 Source 2 “King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, by the grace of God, King and Queen of Spain, greetings. We learned that some wicked Christians in our kingdom adopted Jewish religious practices and cultural customs and apostatized from our holy Catholic faith because these Christians interacted with Jewish people. Therefore, we, with the counsel and advice of the clergy, noblemen, and other persons of learning and wisdom in our kingdom, order the Jewish community to depart and never to return. And we forbid any person or persons in our kingdom to receive, protect, or defend any Jewish person under pain of losing all their possessions, vassals, fortified places, and whatever financial grants they hold from us.” Royal decree issued by King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella of Spain, 1492 The attitude toward religious practice expressed in Source 2 was most directly apparent in which of the following Spanish policies in the Americas in the period circa 1500–1750 ?

The state sponsorship of Jesuit missions to native populations

Source 1 “People who follow Judaism should pass their lives among Christians quietly, practicing their own religion and not speaking ill of Christianity. Moreover, a Jewish person should not attempt to convert any Christian. Whoever violates this law shall be put to death and lose his property. Jewish people may maintain their synagogues, but they cannot build new synagogues without our permission. Christians may not deface synagogues or steal anything from them. Jewish people shall not be forced to attend court by Christian officials on Saturdays [the Jewish Sabbath]. All legal claims between Christians and the Jewish community shall be decided by our royal judges and a Christian is forbidden from arresting or harming Jewish people or seizing their property. Christians may not use force to convert a Jewish person to Christianity, though Christians should use the Holy Scriptures and kind words. Jewish people, however, should not attempt to interfere with a member of their community converting to Christianity of their own will. Any Christian, however, who converts to Judaism shall be put to death as a heretic.” Law code issued by Alfonso X, king of the Christian Spanish kingdom of Castile, circa 1265 Source 2 “King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, by the grace of God, King and Queen of Spain, greetings. We learned that some wicked Christians in our kingdom adopted Jewish religious practices and cultural customs and apostatized from our holy Catholic faith because these Christians interacted with Jewish people. Therefore, we, with the counsel and advice of the clergy, noblemen, and other persons of learning and wisdom in our kingdom, order the Jewish community to depart and never to return. And we forbid any person or persons in our kingdom to receive, protect, or defend any Jewish person under pain of losing all their possessions, vassals, fortified places, and whatever financial grants they hold from us.” Royal decree issued by King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella of Spain, 1492 The two passages best illustrate which of the following continuities in world history?

While some states were willing to tolerate diversity within their territories, others suppressed diversity

“This spring, those Indians who lived in their trading house here fell sick with smallpox, and died most miserably. They fear smallpox more than any other disease because it is very common among them. The condition of this people was so lamentable, and they suffered so greatly from this disease that they were, in the end, not able to help each other, or make a fire, or fetch water to drink. Those of us in the English settlement, seeing their woeful and sad condition, took pity on the Indians and daily fetched them wood and water, and food. Nonetheless, very few of the Indians survived. But by the marvelous goodness of God, not one of the English colonists was stricken or infected by the disease at all, though many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks.” William Bradford, English settler in the Plymouth Colony in North America, diary entry for the year 1633 The author uses all of the following as evidence to support his argument about the impact of smallpox on Native American populations EXCEPT

the english settlers tried to help the native Americans who were affected with smallpox

“This spring, those Indians who lived in their trading house here fell sick with smallpox, and died most miserably. They fear smallpox more than any other disease because it is very common among them. The condition of this people was so lamentable, and they suffered so greatly from this disease that they were, in the end, not able to help each other, or make a fire, or fetch water to drink. Those of us in the English settlement, seeing their woeful and sad condition, took pity on the Indians and daily fetched them wood and water, and food. Nonetheless, very few of the Indians survived. But by the marvelous goodness of God, not one of the English colonists was stricken or infected by the disease at all, though many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks.” William Bradford, English settler in the Plymouth Colony in North America, diary entry for the year 1633 The author invokes which of the following to support his claim that smallpox impact on European settlers was different from its impact on native Americans?

ideas about the role of divine providence in human affairs

“This spring, those Indians who lived in their trading house here fell sick with smallpox, and died most miserably. They fear smallpox more than any other disease because it is very common among them. The condition of this people was so lamentable, and they suffered so greatly from this disease that they were, in the end, not able to help each other, or make a fire, or fetch water to drink. Those of us in the English settlement, seeing their woeful and sad condition, took pity on the Indians and daily fetched them wood and water, and food. Nonetheless, very few of the Indians survived. But by the marvelous goodness of God, not one of the English colonists was stricken or infected by the disease at all, though many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks.” William Bradford, English settler in the Plymouth Colony in North America, diary entry for the year 1633 The passage implies that the author was aware of smallpox being an infectious disease. Which of the following can best be cited as evidence of that claim?

The author’s statement that no English settlers fell ill, even though “many performed these favors for the Indians for weeks”

To Your Highnesses of the States General:* We have been informed by our agent Joris Pietersen, who recently returned from the coast of Angola, that a war arose between the king of Kongo and the Portuguese. The war started because the Portuguese, according to their nature, attacked the region of Mpemba, which the king of Kongo also claims, without any reason but to enslave the inhabitants and conquer the entire country. In this war, the king of Kongo’s armies performed so well that all of the Portuguese were driven out of the conquered region with many losses. After this victory, the king took the hats and shoes of all captured Portuguese soldiers as a sign of contempt and took the sails and rudders off their two ships that were anchored off Mpemba. Then the king of Kongo, being of the opinion that all the Portuguese should be driven off his lands forever, sent letters to Joris Pietersen, our agent in Angola, requesting to enter into an alliance with the Dutch state and asking your Highnesses to provide them with four or five warships as well as five or six hundred soldiers for assistance on the water as well as the land, in order that he might secure the coasts from the Portuguese and their supporters. The king is offering to pay for the ships and the monthly wages of the soldiers with gold, silver, or ivory. If successful, he promises to put into your hands the fort and city of Luanda—a place so useful to the king of Spain that more than twenty-four thousand Africans are shipped annually from there to the West-Indies and other places in the Americas. Your Highnesses, it is the Company’s judgment that the king of Kongo’s proposal will likely bring harm to our enemies and increase our commerce. Therefore, if the king’s proposal is accepted, the Company will contribute according to its capacity.” *a legislative body of the Dutch Republic, comprising representatives of the various provinces of the Netherlands Letter from the directors of the Dutch West India Company to the States General of the Netherlands, 1623 The contents of the letter are best understood in the context of which of the following aspects of the historical situation in sub-Saharan Africa in the early 1600s?

political, religious, and economic rivalries shaped European colonial polices in Africa

“To Your Highnesses of the States General:* We have been informed by our agent Joris Pietersen, who recently returned from the coast of Angola, that a war arose between the king of Kongo and the Portuguese. The war started because the Portuguese, according to their nature, attacked the region of Mpemba, which the king of Kongo also claims, without any reason but to enslave the inhabitants and conquer the entire country. In this war, the king of Kongo’s armies performed so well that all of the Portuguese were driven out of the conquered region with many losses. After this victory, the king took the hats and shoes of all captured Portuguese soldiers as a sign of contempt and took the sails and rudders off their two ships that were anchored off Mpemba. Then the king of Kongo, being of the opinion that all the Portuguese should be driven off his lands forever, sent letters to Joris Pietersen, our agent in Angola, requesting to enter into an alliance with the Dutch state and asking your Highnesses to provide them with four or five warships as well as five or six hundred soldiers for assistance on the water as well as the land, in order that he might secure the coasts from the Portuguese and their supporters. The king is offering to pay for the ships and the monthly wages of the soldiers with gold, silver, or ivory. If successful, he promises to put into your hands the fort and city of Luanda—a place so useful to the king of Spain that more than twenty-four thousand Africans are shipped annually from there to the West-Indies and other places in the Americas. Your Highnesses, it is the Company’s judgment that the king of Kongo’s proposal will likely bring harm to our enemies and increase our commerce. Therefore, if the king’s proposal is accepted, the Company will contribute according to its capacity.” *a legislative body of the Dutch Republic, comprising representatives of the various provinces of the Netherlands Letter from the directors of the Dutch West India Company to the States General of the Netherlands, 1623 The point of view expressed by the Dutch West India Company’s directors in the letter can best be described as…

seeking to steer the States General representatives into taking action that would benefit the company financially

To Your Highnesses of the States General:* We have been informed by our agent Joris Pietersen, who recently returned from the coast of Angola, that a war arose between the king of Kongo and the Portuguese. The war started because the Portuguese, according to their nature, attacked the region of Mpemba, which the king of Kongo also claims, without any reason but to enslave the inhabitants and conquer the entire country. In this war, the king of Kongo’s armies performed so well that all of the Portuguese were driven out of the conquered region with many losses. After this victory, the king took the hats and shoes of all captured Portuguese soldiers as a sign of contempt and took the sails and rudders off their two ships that were anchored off Mpemba. Then the king of Kongo, being of the opinion that all the Portuguese should be driven off his lands forever, sent letters to Joris Pietersen, our agent in Angola, requesting to enter into an alliance with the Dutch state and asking your Highnesses to provide them with four or five warships as well as five or six hundred soldiers for assistance on the water as well as the land, in order that he might secure the coasts from the Portuguese and their supporters. The king is offering to pay for the ships and the monthly wages of the soldiers with gold, silver, or ivory. If successful, he promises to put into your hands the fort and city of Luanda—a place so useful to the king of Spain that more than twenty-four thousand Africans are shipped annually from there to the West-Indies and other places in the Americas. Your Highnesses, it is the Company’s judgment that the king of Kongo’s proposal will likely bring harm to our enemies and increase our commerce. Therefore, if the king’s proposal is accepted, the Company will contribute according to its capacity.” *a legislative body of the Dutch Republic, comprising representatives of the various provinces of the Netherlands Letter from the directors of the Dutch West India Company to the States General of the Netherlands, 1623 The report’s position on the proposed transfer of Luanda to the Dutch is best understood in light of the authors’ goal to

secure profits from the rapidly expanding trans Atlantic slave trade

“I admit that the punishments of the slaves on Barbados for all sorts of offenses are indeed very cruel, but one must consider before condemning the [White] inhabitants that they often have no choice but to set moderation aside and use punishment as a way to intimidate their slaves. The Whites need to impress fear and respect upon their slaves in order not to one day find themselves the victims of their fury. Unless the slaves are kept in a constant state of fear of punishment, they would always be ready to revolt, to take over everything, and to commit the most horrible crimes in order to liberate themselves. The plantations on Barbados are smaller than those in the French [Caribbean] islands. This is not surprising because although the island is small, its population is very large, and land is scarce and therefore very valuable. Nonetheless, the plantation owners are very wealthy and the houses on the plantations are even better built than those in the towns. The plantation houses are large in size, have numerous glass windows, and have fine rooms that are conveniently arranged. Nearly all plantation houses have rows of shade trees around them to keep them cool. One observes the wealth and good taste of the inhabitants in their furniture, which is very fine, and their silver, of which they have so large a quantity that if this island were to be sacked the silver utensils from the plantations alone would be worth more than the value of several Spanish galleons.” Jean-Baptiste Labat, French clergyman and travel writer, account of his visit to the British Caribbean island of Barbados, 1690s Which of the following best describes the author’s argument in the first paragraph?

The demographic makeup of Barbadian society and the structure of its economy make existing punishments for enslaved people justified.

Despite the small size of Barbadian plantations, the landowners on Barbados are very wealthy.

“I admit that the punishments of the slaves on Barbados for all sorts of offenses are indeed very cruel, but one must consider before condemning the [White] inhabitants that they often have no choice but to set moderation aside and use punishment as a way to intimidate their slaves. The Whites need to impress fear and respect upon their slaves in order not to one day find themselves the victims of their fury. Unless the slaves are kept in a constant state of fear of punishment, they would always be ready to revolt, to take over everything, and to commit the most horrible crimes in order to liberate themselves. The plantations on Barbados are smaller than those in the French [Caribbean] islands. This is not surprising because although the island is small, its population is very large, and land is scarce and therefore very valuable. Nonetheless, the plantation owners are very wealthy and the houses on the plantations are even better built than those in the towns. The plantation houses are large in size, have numerous glass windows, and have fine rooms that are conveniently arranged. Nearly all plantation houses have rows of shade trees around them to keep them cool. One observes the wealth and good taste of the inhabitants in their furniture, which is very fine, and their silver, of which they have so large a quantity that if this island were to be sacked the silver utensils from the plantations alone would be worth more than the value of several Spanish galleons.” Jean-Baptiste Labat, French clergyman and travel writer, account of his visit to the British Caribbean island of Barbados, 1690s Which of the following is an implicit argument made by the author in the passage?

Coerced labor systems have allowed a minority of the population of Caribbean colonial societies to reap enormous economic benefits.

The Cossack commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky and all his Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host,* humbly bowing to His Majesty Tsar Alexey Mikhaylovich, ruler of all Russia, pledge that they shall serve the Tsar’s sovereign wishes forever, and in exchange for that they request that His Majesty grant them the following privileges: Firstly, that town and city officials in the territories controlled by the Zaporozhian Host be selected from the Cossacks’ own ranks. These Cossack city officials shall endeavor to serve His Majesty’s wishes in all their actions, collecting His tax revenues and administering His justice and punishments. In the past, His Majesty several times sent His royal appointees from Moscow, but those appointees habitually violated our Cossacks’ rights and tried to impose this or that royal decree or regulation on our Host’s people, which frustrated our people greatly. By contrast, if our Host’s people are governed by their own, they are not going to resist or complain. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, provided the Cossacks will not interfere with the collection of taxes nor will they impede royal acts of justice from being carried out. Secondly, that should rulers of foreign countries continue to send ambassadors to commander Khmelnytsky and the Zaporozhian Host directly, as they have done before, the Cossack commander can continue to receive and conduct business with those who come in peace. The commander should only inform His Majesty of those foreign ambassadors that come and express hostility toward Russia or seek to do it harm. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, with the exception being ambassadors from the Polish king and the Ottoman Sultan—if such ambassadors arrive in the lands of the Zaporozhian Host, they should be apprehended regardless of their intentions, and the Cossacks should not release them until they hear back from His Majesty.” *The Zaporozhian Host was an army of frontier soldiers and settlers (Cossacks) on the southern borders of the Russian state (present-day Central Ukraine). Agreement between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and the tsar of Russia, 1654 As outlined in the passage, the provisions of the agreement can best be used to illustrate which of the following aspects of state building in Eurasia in the period circa 1450–1750 ?

local elites successfully resisted attempts at state centralization and asserted their autonomy from central rule

The Cossack commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky and all his Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host,* humbly bowing to His Majesty Tsar Alexey Mikhaylovich, ruler of all Russia, pledge that they shall serve the Tsar’s sovereign wishes forever, and in exchange for that they request that His Majesty grant them the following privileges: Firstly, that town and city officials in the territories controlled by the Zaporozhian Host be selected from the Cossacks’ own ranks. These Cossack city officials shall endeavor to serve His Majesty’s wishes in all their actions, collecting His tax revenues and administering His justice and punishments. In the past, His Majesty several times sent His royal appointees from Moscow, but those appointees habitually violated our Cossacks’ rights and tried to impose this or that royal decree or regulation on our Host’s people, which frustrated our people greatly. By contrast, if our Host’s people are governed by their own, they are not going to resist or complain. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, provided the Cossacks will not interfere with the collection of taxes nor will they impede royal acts of justice from being carried out. Secondly, that should rulers of foreign countries continue to send ambassadors to commander Khmelnytsky and the Zaporozhian Host directly, as they have done before, the Cossack commander can continue to receive and conduct business with those who come in peace. The commander should only inform His Majesty of those foreign ambassadors that come and express hostility toward Russia or seek to do it harm. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, with the exception being ambassadors from the Polish king and the Ottoman Sultan—if such ambassadors arrive in the lands of the Zaporozhian Host, they should be apprehended regardless of their intentions, and the Cossacks should not release them until they hear back from His Majesty.” *The Zaporozhian Host was an army of frontier soldiers and settlers (Cossacks) on the southern borders of the Russian state (present-day Central Ukraine). Agreement between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and the tsar of Russia, 1654 The privileges discussed in the passage best demonstrate that in some instances in the period 1450-1750

internal challenges to state power could lead to the establishment of new state-like structures within existing states

The Cossack commander Bohdan Khmelnytsky and all his Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host,* humbly bowing to His Majesty Tsar Alexey Mikhaylovich, ruler of all Russia, pledge that they shall serve the Tsar’s sovereign wishes forever, and in exchange for that they request that His Majesty grant them the following privileges: Firstly, that town and city officials in the territories controlled by the Zaporozhian Host be selected from the Cossacks’ own ranks. These Cossack city officials shall endeavor to serve His Majesty’s wishes in all their actions, collecting His tax revenues and administering His justice and punishments. In the past, His Majesty several times sent His royal appointees from Moscow, but those appointees habitually violated our Cossacks’ rights and tried to impose this or that royal decree or regulation on our Host’s people, which frustrated our people greatly. By contrast, if our Host’s people are governed by their own, they are not going to resist or complain. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, provided the Cossacks will not interfere with the collection of taxes nor will they impede royal acts of justice from being carried out. Secondly, that should rulers of foreign countries continue to send ambassadors to commander Khmelnytsky and the Zaporozhian Host directly, as they have done before, the Cossack commander can continue to receive and conduct business with those who come in peace. The commander should only inform His Majesty of those foreign ambassadors that come and express hostility toward Russia or seek to do it harm. So ordered. His Majesty approved this request, with the exception being ambassadors from the Polish king and the Ottoman Sultan—if such ambassadors arrive in the lands of the Zaporozhian Host, they should be apprehended regardless of their intentions, and the Cossacks should not release them until they hear back from His Majesty.” *The Zaporozhian Host was an army of frontier soldiers and settlers (Cossacks) on the southern borders of the Russian state (present-day Central Ukraine). Agreement between the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host and the tsar of Russia, 1654 The fact that the Russian tsar insisted in the last paragraph that some ambassadors be treated differently from others best illustrates which of the following about international politics in the period circa 1650–1750 ?

Russia had encountered significant resistance to its plans for further territorial expansion from some of the established states in eastern and southern Europe.

“Muslim-Christian relations were at a low ebb when the Ottomans arrived in the Arab lands [in 1516]. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, the previous rulers of the area, had embarked on an ideological as well as a military campaign against the various Christian communities still living in the Middle East. . . . In the aftermath of this disaster, Christianity in the Arab east was in psychological and numerical decline. Jewish communities in the region fared somewhat better than their Christian neighbors but could hardly be characterized as flourishing on the eve of the Ottoman conquest. The Jews and Christians in the region were at first probably ambivalent, if not indifferent or hostile, to the change in the dynastic succession from Mamluk to Ottoman sultans who exercised sovereignty over their lives, but their fortunes were about to improve under the new regime. The Ottoman sultans were still winning victories against European armies on the battlefield, and the presence of Christians so distant from the war zone in Central Europe must not have felt particularly threatening or indeed important (beyond the collection of their taxes) to most Ottoman officials posted in the Arab lands. In the case of the Sephardic Jews,* the Ottoman sultans welcomed them into their realm as potentially revenue-producing subjects. Most importantly, the political tradition honored by the Ottoman sultans was to grant autonomy to the various religious groups of their empire. This afforded the Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Middle East fairly wide-ranging freedoms and allowed them to recover some of the losses they had endured under the Mamluks, including the right to repair damaged churches and synagogues and, in a few cases, permission to build new ones.” *Jewish communities from the Iberian Peninsula who were forced to leave after the Christian reconquest of what became Spain and Portugal Bruce Masters, historian, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, book published in 2001 All of the following statements are factually accurate. Which would best support the author’s argument in the first paragraph of the passage?

The period of Mamluk rule in Egypt saw a high number of conversions to Islam and a considerable reduction in the percentage of Coptic Christians in the overall population of Egypt.

Muslim-Christian relations were at a low ebb when the Ottomans arrived in the Arab lands [in 1516]. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, the previous rulers of the area, had embarked on an ideological as well as a military campaign against the various Christian communities still living in the Middle East. . . . In the aftermath of this disaster, Christianity in the Arab east was in psychological and numerical decline. Jewish communities in the region fared somewhat better than their Christian neighbors but could hardly be characterized as flourishing on the eve of the Ottoman conquest. The Jews and Christians in the region were at first probably ambivalent, if not indifferent or hostile, to the change in the dynastic succession from Mamluk to Ottoman sultans who exercised sovereignty over their lives, but their fortunes were about to improve under the new regime. The Ottoman sultans were still winning victories against European armies on the battlefield, and the presence of Christians so distant from the war zone in Central Europe must not have felt particularly threatening or indeed important (beyond the collection of their taxes) to most Ottoman officials posted in the Arab lands. In the case of the Sephardic Jews,* the Ottoman sultans welcomed them into their realm as potentially revenue-producing subjects. Most importantly, the political tradition honored by the Ottoman sultans was to grant autonomy to the various religious groups of their empire. This afforded the Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Middle East fairly wide-ranging freedoms and allowed them to recover some of the losses they had endured under the Mamluks, including the right to repair damaged churches and synagogues and, in a few cases, permission to build new ones.” *Jewish communities from the Iberian Peninsula who were forced to leave after the Christian reconquest of what became Spain and Portugal Bruce Masters, historian, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, book published in 2001 Which of the following would a historian most likely cite as evidence in support of the author’s argument in the second paragraph of the passage?

The Ottoman millet system, an arrangement designed to utilize the economic contributions of non-Muslim groups within the empire while granting them limited autonomy to organize their communal affairs under their own religious leaders

Muslim-Christian relations were at a low ebb when the Ottomans arrived in the Arab lands [in 1516]. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, the previous rulers of the area, had embarked on an ideological as well as a military campaign against the various Christian communities still living in the Middle East. . . . In the aftermath of this disaster, Christianity in the Arab east was in psychological and numerical decline. Jewish communities in the region fared somewhat better than their Christian neighbors but could hardly be characterized as flourishing on the eve of the Ottoman conquest. The Jews and Christians in the region were at first probably ambivalent, if not indifferent or hostile, to the change in the dynastic succession from Mamluk to Ottoman sultans who exercised sovereignty over their lives, but their fortunes were about to improve under the new regime. The Ottoman sultans were still winning victories against European armies on the battlefield, and the presence of Christians so distant from the war zone in Central Europe must not have felt particularly threatening or indeed important (beyond the collection of their taxes) to most Ottoman officials posted in the Arab lands. In the case of the Sephardic Jews,* the Ottoman sultans welcomed them into their realm as potentially revenue-producing subjects. Most importantly, the political tradition honored by the Ottoman sultans was to grant autonomy to the various religious groups of their empire. This afforded the Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Middle East fairly wide-ranging freedoms and allowed them to recover some of the losses they had endured under the Mamluks, including the right to repair damaged churches and synagogues and, in a few cases, permission to build new ones.” *Jewish communities from the Iberian Peninsula who were forced to leave after the Christian reconquest of what became Spain and Portugal Bruce Masters, historian, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, book published in 2001 All of the following statements are factually accurate. Which might best be used to undermine or modify the author’s argument in the second paragraph?

Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire faced considerable restrictions on their religious practices, legal rights, and social freedoms.

Which of the following developments can be most directly attributed to Portuguese and snapish state sponsorship of maritime explore action in the late 15th century?

improvements in European geographic knowledge of Africa and the Indian Ocean

Which of the following processes most immediately led to the global expansion of European political power in the period circa 1500?

advances in shipbuilding and navigational methods

The sixteenth- and seventeenth-century maritime exploration efforts by England, France, and the Netherlands were most directly connected to which of the following historical processes?

Economic competition against Spain and Portugal and a desire to find new sailing routes to Asia

When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down. After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: ‘What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!’” *The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s The conduct of the siege as described in the passage could best be used to explain which of the following processes in the period 1450–1750 ?

The use of new weapons by expanding imperial states

When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down. After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: ‘What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!’” *The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s The type of warfare described in the passage most directly helps to explain which of the following 16th century development?

The intensification of political rivalries between the Ottoman Empire and neighboring states in Europe and the Middle East

“When the initial siege failed to take the city,* [the Ottoman] Sultan Mehmet II summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about what cannon could be used to demolish the northern wall of the city, along the bay of the Golden Horn. They assured him it would be easy to demolish that wall if they could construct another massive cannon. The Sultan immediately provided them with everything they needed. So they constructed the cannon, a thing most fearsome to see and altogether unbelievable. With an astounding thunder and a flame that lit up all the surroundings, the canon hurled stones that hit the wall with tremendous force and velocity and immediately knocked it down. After a long and bitter struggle, the Ottomans prevailed and their entire army poured into the city through the breach in the walls. They robbed and plundered, and the whole city was despoiled and blackened as if by fire. The Sultan then entered the city and saw its great size, grandeur, and beauty. When he saw what a large number had been killed and the wholesale ruin and destruction of the city, he was filled with compassion. Tears fell from his eyes as he groaned: ‘What a great city we have given over to plunder and destruction!’” *The Byzantine capital Constantinople, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 and renamed Istanbul Michael Kritovoulos, Byzantine noble, History of Mehmet the Conqueror, written in the 1460s The type of weaponry used in the siege, as described in the passage, could also help to explain the expansion of all of the following states in the period 1450–1750 EXCEPT the

Aztec (Mexica) empire

The relationship between levels of military personnel and state revenues as shown in the table is best understood in the context of which of the following global developments in the period 1450–1750 ?

As military forces expanded and became more professionalized, states were forced to develop new ways to generate revenue.

The trends in military personnel and state revenue shown in the table are best understood in the context of which of the following changes in the relationship between states and local elites in the period 1450–1750 ?

states increasingly centralized their authority at the expense of local elites

Which of the following developments in the period 1450-1750 is best understood as a response to the trends shown in the table?

the creation of larger state bureaurcrcies

In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur’an says, “Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender.” This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings. I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess. Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent. But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage.” Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514 A historian would most likely interpret the rhetoric in the passage as evidence that rulers of imperial states in the period circa 1450–1750 continued to

use religious ideas to highlight their political legitimacy and attack the legitimacy of their enemies

In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur’an says, “Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender.” This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings. I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess. Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent. But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage.” Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514 Based on the purpose of the letter, Selim’s description of the followers of Shah Ismail I as a “heretical faction” can best be interpreted as a commentary of the Safavid Empire’s

adherence to Shia Islam

“In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The Holy Qur’an says, “Rise not up against me, but come to me in surrender.” This letter has been graciously issued by me Sultan Selim, the most glorious sovereign, the Caliph of God Most High in this world, haloed in victory, slayer of the wicked and of the infidel, guardian of the noble and the pious, the warrior in the path of God, the defender of the Faith, the standard-bearer of justice and righteousness—and is addressed to you, prince Ismail, the ruler of the kingdom of the Persians, the possessor of the land of tyranny and wickedness, the captain of the vicious, the chief of the malicious, the usurper of the throne of the ancient Persian kings. I have heard repeatedly that you have subjected the upright Muslims under your rule to your devious will, that you have undermined the firm foundation of the Faith, and that you no longer uphold the commandments and prohibitions of the Divine Law, but have incited your heretical faction to commit abominable deeds in the lands that you possess. Be informed, then, that both the opinion of the learned Islamic scholars and the consensus of the Sunni community agree that it is my obligation to extinguish and extirpate the evil heresy that you represent. But should you take up a course of repentance, become like one blameless, and return to the sublime straight path of Muhammad (Prayers and salutations be upon him), and should you proclaim your lands and their people part of my Ottoman state, then you shall be granted my royal favor and imperial protection and patronage.” Letter by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I to the Safavid Shah Ismail I, circa 1514 Which of the following aspects of the international situation in early sixteenth-century southwest Asia is most relevant to understanding Sultan Selim’s letter?

The Ottoman and Safavid empires fought numerous wars for control over Iraq, Syria, and other regions of the Middle East.

Throughout its history, Central Asia has provided the ancient civilized empires on its borders with new Shahs, Sultans, or Sons of Heaven. These periodic invasions by the nomads of the steppe, whose khans ascended the thrones of Changan, Luoyang, Kaifeng, or Beijing*, of Isfahan or Tabriz**, Delhi or Constantinople, became one of the geographic laws of history. But there was another, opposing law which brought about the slow absorption of the invaders by the ancient civilized lands. The civilizations of China and Persia, though conquered, would in the long run vanquish their conquerors, intoxicating them with the pleasures of settled life, lulling them to sleep, and assimilating them culturally. Often, only fifty years after a conquest, the culturally Sinicized or Persianized former barbarian would be the first to stand guard over his adopted civilization and protect it against fresh nomadic onslaughts.” *capital cities of various Chinese dynasties **capital cities of various Persian dynasties René Grousset, French historian of Central Asia, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1939 Which of the following demonstrates the assimilation of nomadic conquerors into conquered societies during the period circa 1250–1450 ?

The rulers of the yuan dynasty adopting Chinese court culture and methods of rule

Throughout its history, Central Asia has provided the ancient civilized empires on its borders with new Shahs, Sultans, or Sons of Heaven. These periodic invasions by the nomads of the steppe, whose khans ascended the thrones of Changan, Luoyang, Kaifeng, or Beijing*, of Isfahan or Tabriz**, Delhi or Constantinople, became one of the geographic laws of history. But there was another, opposing law which brought about the slow absorption of the invaders by the ancient civilized lands. The civilizations of China and Persia, though conquered, would in the long run vanquish their conquerors, intoxicating them with the pleasures of settled life, lulling them to sleep, and assimilating them culturally. Often, only fifty years after a conquest, the culturally Sinicized or Persianized former barbarian would be the first to stand guard over his adopted civilization and protect it against fresh nomadic onslaughts.” *capital cities of various Chinese dynasties **capital cities of various Persian dynasties René Grousset, French historian of Central Asia, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1939 Which of the following developments in the period circa 1250–1450 represents a situation that did not lead to conquerors assimilating into the cultures of the conquered societies?

Invading armies establishing and maintaining a separate community, as illustrated by the European crusader kingdoms in the Middle East

“Throughout its history, Central Asia has provided the ancient civilized empires on its borders with new Shahs, Sultans, or Sons of Heaven. These periodic invasions by the nomads of the steppe, whose khans ascended the thrones of Changan, Luoyang, Kaifeng, or Beijing*, of Isfahan or Tabriz**, Delhi or Constantinople, became one of the geographic laws of history. But there was another, opposing law which brought about the slow absorption of the invaders by the ancient civilized lands. The civilizations of China and Persia, though conquered, would in the long run vanquish their conquerors, intoxicating them with the pleasures of settled life, lulling them to sleep, and assimilating them culturally. Often, only fifty years after a conquest, the culturally Sinicized or Persianized former barbarian would be the first to stand guard over his adopted civilization and protect it against fresh nomadic onslaughts.” *capital cities of various Chinese dynasties **capital cities of various Persian dynasties René Grousset, French historian of Central Asia, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, 1939 The Mongol conquests resulted in all of the following developments EXCEPT

the initial diffusion of Buddhism and Christianity to east asia

“[Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries] . . . Muslim maritime traders from Egypt sought goods coming from China and Southeast Asia [and] purchased these items on India’s southwestern coast. . . . Sea voyages between Egypt and India were still dangerous and still involved long voyages, as well as long stays in harbors where they waited, sometimes for several months, for the winds to shift direction. . . . To protect themselves, Muslim merchants organized karim, convoyed merchant fleets. The rulers of Egypt began providing an armed escort for the fleets and succeeded in making the trade between the Red Sea and India a government-protected, regularly accomplished endeavor. The karim merchants were organized in large family firms with substantial assets and clients in markets all over the trading networks. In the Indian Ocean trade, Muslim traders not only dealt with other Muslims, but also Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. Traders of various religious backgrounds boarded the same ships or stayed in the same caravanserai. In Egypt, many Jewish traders actually operated their businesses within the framework of Muslim business networks.” Xinru Liu and Lynda Norene Shaffer, historians, Connections across Eurasia, published in 2007 The “long stays in harbors” mentioned in the description of the sea journeys in the first paragraph were most likely necessary because Indian Ocean maritime trade in the period circa 1200–1450

had to take into account environmental factors such as the timing and direction of the monsoons

“[Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries] . . . Muslim maritime traders from Egypt sought goods coming from China and Southeast Asia [and] purchased these items on India’s southwestern coast. . . . Sea voyages between Egypt and India were still dangerous and still involved long voyages, as well as long stays in harbors where they waited, sometimes for several months, for the winds to shift direction. . . . To protect themselves, Muslim merchants organized karim, convoyed merchant fleets. The rulers of Egypt began providing an armed escort for the fleets and succeeded in making the trade between the Red Sea and India a government-protected, regularly accomplished endeavor. The karim merchants were organized in large family firms with substantial assets and clients in markets all over the trading networks. In the Indian Ocean trade, Muslim traders not only dealt with other Muslims, but also Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. Traders of various religious backgrounds boarded the same ships or stayed in the same caravanserai. In Egypt, many Jewish traders actually operated their businesses within the framework of Muslim business networks.” Xinru Liu and Lynda Norene Shaffer, historians, Connections across Eurasia, published in 2007 Based on the pattern of trade described in the third paragraph, the Egyptian Karin merchants were most likely directly involved in which of the following broader developments in the Indian Ocean in the period circa 1200-1450?

the establishment of diasporic merchant communities

“[Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries] . . . Muslim maritime traders from Egypt sought goods coming from China and Southeast Asia [and] purchased these items on India’s southwestern coast. . . . Sea voyages between Egypt and India were still dangerous and still involved long voyages, as well as long stays in harbors where they waited, sometimes for several months, for the winds to shift direction. . . . To protect themselves, Muslim merchants organized karim, convoyed merchant fleets. The rulers of Egypt began providing an armed escort for the fleets and succeeded in making the trade between the Red Sea and India a government-protected, regularly accomplished endeavor. The karim merchants were organized in large family firms with substantial assets and clients in markets all over the trading networks. In the Indian Ocean trade, Muslim traders not only dealt with other Muslims, but also Hindus, Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. Traders of various religious backgrounds boarded the same ships or stayed in the same caravanserai. In Egypt, many Jewish traders actually operated their businesses within the framework of Muslim business networks.” Xinru Liu and Lynda Norene Shaffer, historians, Connections across Eurasia, published in 2007 The pattern of trade described in the passage was most characteristic of which of the following types of goods in the period 1200-1450

luxury goods such as spices or porcelain

The eleventh king of the sultanate of Kano* was Yaji Ali [reigned 1349–1385]. In Yaji’s time merchants came from the north bringing Islam. They commanded the king Yaji to observe the times of prayer. He complied, and made one man an imam (prayer leader) and another a muezzin (the person reciting the call to prayer from a mosque). The king commanded every town in his kingdom to observe the times of prayer. So they all did so. A mosque was built beneath the sacred tree facing east, and prayers were made at the five appointed times in it. The nineteenth king of the Hausa kingdom was Yakubu [reigned 1452–1463]. He was a good king. In his time traders came to Kano from Mali bringing with them books on Islamic divinity and the study of the Arabic language. Formerly our religious scholars had, in addition to the Qur’an, only a few books of Islamic law. At this time too, salt became common in Kano. In the following year merchants from the region of Gwanja in the south began coming, and from the north Berbers** came in large numbers, and a colony of Arabs arrived.” *a West African state established by the Hausa people of present-day northern Nigeria **ethnic group from the western part of North Africa Excerpts from The Kano Chronicle, an oral tradition that records the exploits of the kings of Kano, written down in the late nineteenth century The integration of West African states into wider regional and transregional economic networks in the period circa 1200–1450 was carried out mostly via the

trans-Saharan trade routes

The eleventh king of the sultanate of Kano* was Yaji Ali [reigned 1349–1385]. In Yaji’s time merchants came from the north bringing Islam. They commanded the king Yaji to observe the times of prayer. He complied, and made one man an imam (prayer leader) and another a muezzin (the person reciting the call to prayer from a mosque). The king commanded every town in his kingdom to observe the times of prayer. So they all did so. A mosque was built beneath the sacred tree facing east, and prayers were made at the five appointed times in it. The nineteenth king of the Hausa kingdom was Yakubu [reigned 1452–1463]. He was a good king. In his time traders came to Kano from Mali bringing with them books on Islamic divinity and the study of the Arabic language. Formerly our religious scholars had, in addition to the Qur’an, only a few books of Islamic law. At this time too, salt became common in Kano. In the following year merchants from the region of Gwanja in the south began coming, and from the north Berbers** came in large numbers, and a colony of Arabs arrived.” *a West African state established by the Hausa people of present-day northern Nigeria **ethnic group from the western part of North Africa Excerpts from The Kano Chronicle, an oral tradition that records the exploits of the kings of Kano, written down in the late nineteenth century The spread of Islam into the sub-Saharan west africa in the period circa 1200-1450 was mostly a result of the conversion of the rulers of which of the following states?

the Mali empire

The eleventh king of the sultanate of Kano* was Yaji Ali [reigned 1349–1385]. In Yaji’s time merchants came from the north bringing Islam. They commanded the king Yaji to observe the times of prayer. He complied, and made one man an imam (prayer leader) and another a muezzin (the person reciting the call to prayer from a mosque). The king commanded every town in his kingdom to observe the times of prayer. So they all did so. A mosque was built beneath the sacred tree facing east, and prayers were made at the five appointed times in it. The nineteenth king of the Hausa kingdom was Yakubu [reigned 1452–1463]. He was a good king. In his time traders came to Kano from Mali bringing with them books on Islamic divinity and the study of the Arabic language. Formerly our religious scholars had, in addition to the Qur’an, only a few books of Islamic law. At this time too, salt became common in Kano. In the following year merchants from the region of Gwanja in the south began coming, and from the north Berbers** came in large numbers, and a colony of Arabs arrived.” *a West African state established by the Hausa people of present-day northern Nigeria **ethnic group from the western part of North Africa Excerpts from The Kano Chronicle, an oral tradition that records the exploits of the kings of Kano, written down in the late nineteenth century In the period circa 1200-1450, which of the following most directly enabled merchants to bring salt and other bulk products to markets in sub-Saharan Africa?

the adoption of innovative practices in overland trading, such as the use of camel caravans and saddles

“On several occasions, Ghazan Khan* went to the observatory at Maragha** and watched the Muslim, Christian, and Chinese astronomers make their observations. He looked at all the operations and instruments, studied them, and asked about their procedures, which he understood in spite of their difficulty. He also ordered the construction of a dome in order to investigate the Sun’s motion and he spoke out with his astronomers about it. All of them said that although they had never seen such an instrument, it was reasonable and sensible. He gave orders for the construction of an observatory next to his tomb in Tabriz in Persia. He explained how to construct the observatory with such clarity that local wise men marveled at his intelligence, because such work had not been done in any era. Those wise men said that constructing the observatory would be extremely difficult. He guided them, whereupon they commenced building it and they finished it following his instructions. Those wise men and all the engineers agreed that nobody had done such a thing before nor had imagined doing it.” *ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate, whose territories included most of the Muslim Middle East; reigned 1295–1304 **an astronomical observatory in present-day Azerbaijan, established by a grant from the first Ilkhanid ruler in the mid-thirteenth century Rashid al-Din Hamdani, Persian Muslim historian and government minister in Ghazan Khan’s court, excerpt from a universal history commissioned by Ghazan Khan, completed circa 1316 Which of the following best describes the author’s purpose in the passage?

to portray his patron as a generous supporter of the sciences and a man of unusual intelligence

political upheaval and reorganization increased cultural and scientific exchanges across regions

His career illustrates the possibilities for diffusion and intermingling of cultures brought about by the Mongol conquests.

Based on the information in the table, the Black Death outbreak of the bubonic plague struck Essex county in which of the following periods?

Between 1320 and 1350

100

A comparison between the data for the three manors shown in the table best illustrates which of the following about the bubonic plague?

In some but not all areas, the population was beginning to recover by 1400.

Unit 1

Unit 1

unit 2

unit 2

unit 3

unit 3

unit 4

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Unit 5 review

Unit 5 review

unit 6

unit 6

more final review

more final review