See language in terms of its structure. They believe that by describing the observable and verifiable features of the language, one can learn it.

Language is Innate. Because every normal child has a language acquisition device (LAD) in their brains, they are predisposed to learning their first language in a very short period-roughly five years after birth.

Language is primarily vocal. Speech is the fundamental language medium; writing is merely a supplementary way to convey language. According to linguists, writing is subordinate to speaking in the language.

Language is a system of systems. To create meaningful words, sounds are organized in a predetermined order. The phrase "She bought a new novel" is acceptable, but the phrase "She bought a new novel a" is not, as the word order of the latter is not in accordance with the established S-V-O word order in English grammar.

Language is arbitrary. The meanings of a language's words and the concepts they express are not innately related to one another.

Language is a means of communication. Language is an important tool for communicating. It gives shape to people's thoughts, as well as guides and controls their activity.

Language is a system of knowledge that is universal and innate, manifested in linguistic forms.

Writing is artistic- It makes it possible for native speakers to create and comprehend new sentences that they have neither heard nor used before.

Language is universal. It is universal in the sense that all typical children develop a mother tongue and on a highly abstract level, all languages must share essential characteristics of human languages. For instance, all languages include rules that turn sounds into words, and words into phrases and clauses, and all languages have transformation rules that allow speakers to ask questions, negate sentences, or issue orders.

Language learning as a process that results from our encounters with other people and the outer world.

Children are born with an innate ability to organize laws of language, which enables children to easily learn a native language.

Language is a dynamic mechanism for information exchange among speech community members. It serves as a platform for the presentation of functional meaning, including the expression of emotions, persuasion, information gathering and dissemination, and the incitement of others to act in a certain way. This perspective on language places more emphasis on its meaning and functions than its grammatical features, which results in language instruction materials that are organized according to categories of meaning and functions rather than by grammar and structure-related components.

Language is a tool for creating interpersonal connections and carrying out social Interactions between people. It is a technique for establishing and preserving social connections through dialogue. According to this theory, language learning is not just a matter of acquiring the rules of grammar and vocabulary, but it is also a social process that involves interaction with others.

Which derives from a general theory of learning, claims that an individual's language behavior is influenced by sequences of varied incentives In his or her environment. It views the acquisition of a language as a behavior, like other types of human conduct, rather than a mental phenomenon, and as a process of habit building. Since learning a language is said to be accomplished by forming habits based on stimulus- response chains, language is seen as both a mechanical and human activity. The repercussions of a response are highlighted by behaviorism, which also contends that it is the behavior that follows a response that reinforces it and so contributes to the association's strength.

Views the acquisition of a language as a behavior, similar to othe types of human conduct, rather than a mental phenomenon, and as a process of habit building. Since learning a language is said to be accomplished by forming habits based on stimulus-response chains, language is seen as both a mechanical and human activity. The repercussions of a response are highlighted by behaviorism, which also contends that it is the behavior that follows a response that reinforces it and so contributes to the association's strength.

It claims that there are two ways of developing competence in L2

Both children and adults acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, that is, certain structures are acquired before others, regardless of the language used

Language performance is normally preceded by the monitor. Editing may occur before or after the natural output. According to Krashen, monitoring occurs when there is sufficient time when pressure exists t convey meaning correctly, and when appropriate rules are in place

According to Krashen, learners acquire grammatical features when exposed to them beyond their current level (i.e., 1 + 1). Context helps make comprehensible input understandable. Acquisition begins with comprehensible input. Language structures will be acquired naturally if learners receive understandable input. The ability to communicate in a second language 'emerges' rather than indirectly put in place by teaching.

The filter consists of attitude to language, motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Thus, learners with favorable attitudes and self- confidence may have a "low filter which promotes language learning. Learners with a low affective filter seek and receive more input, interact with confidence, and are more receptive to the input they are exposed to. On the other hand, anxious learners have a high affective filter which prevents acquisition from taking place.

The systematic examination of the features of both specific languages and of language, in general, is the main goal of linguistics, which is the scientific study of

The study of the sound system of language: the rules that govern pronunciation. It comprises the elements and principles that determine sound patterns in a language.

The study of language at the level of sounds: how sounds are articulated by the human speech mechanism and received by the auditory mechanism, as well as how sounds can be distinguished and characterized by the way they are produced

The study of word formation; it deals with the internal structure of words. It also studies the changes that take place in the structure of words, e.g., the morpheme 'go' changes to 'went' and 'gone' to signify changes in tense and aspect.

The study of the way phrases, clauses, and sentences are constructed, It is the system of rules and categories that underlies sentence formation. Also, it involves the description of rules and positioning of elements in the sentence such as noun phrases, verb phrases, adverbial phrases, etc.

It addresses the degree of linguistic meaning, it tries to understand how words are related to one another in terms of meaning, for

Addresses the contextual elements of meaning in certain Circumstances. The study focuses on how language is applied in everyday conversation. In contrast to the study of sentences, pragmatics considers utterances, or the sentences that speakers of a language say or utter.

It is the study of linguistic units that are longer than a sentence. At this level, the connections between sentences that give a text coherence or connection are examined.

A distinctive, contrasted sound unit, eg./m/./æ/./n/. These distinct sounds enter combination with other sounds to form words, e.g.,/man/'man'. It is the smallest unit of sound of any language that causes a difference in meaning. It is a phone segment that has a contrastive status.

Are variants or other ways of producing a phoneme. They are phonetically similar and are frequently found in complementary distribution.

Are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract as the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis out the mouth. The airflow is either blocked momentarily or restricted so much that noise is produced as air flows past the constriction.

from bi 'two' labial 'lips'). The primary constriction is at the lipg Up.b.m.w/)

(from labio Tip' dental 'teeth"). The primary constriction is between the lower lip and the upper teeth (/f/v/).

Interdental (from inter betweep' dental teeth'). The primary constriction is between the tongue and the upper teeth (/0,6/) (d) Alveolar (from alveolar ridge). The primary constriction is between the tongue and the alveolar ridge

From palate, the primary constriction is between the tongue and the palate

from velum). The primary constriction is between the tongue and the velum

from glottis, which refers to the space between the vocal cords). The primary constriction is at the glottis.

two articulators (lips, tongue, teeth, etc.) are brought together such that the flow of air through the vocal tract is completely blocked (/p,b,t,d,k,g/).

two articulators are brought near each other süch that the flow of air is impeded but not completely blocked. The airflow through the narrow opening creates friction.

________ are those that begin like stops (with a complete closure in the vocal tract) and end like fricatives (with a narrow opening in the vocal tract).

A____ articulation is one in which the airflow through the mouth is completely blocked but the velum is lowered, forcing the air through the nose.

both terms describe articulations that are mid-way between true consonants (ie, stops, fricatives, affricates, and nasals) and vowels, although they are both generally classified as consonants. _____ is a cover term for all l-like and r-like articulations

Production in the vocal tract is normally unhindered, and they are voiced. The following physical attributes are used to describe them: tongue height, frontness, lip rounding, and tenseness. The tongue can have various areas that are elevated or dropped.

Are prosodic characteristics that all sounds have, regardless of where or how they are spoken. Pitch, Intonation, stress, and Junction are these characteristics. They differ in terms of time, pitch, and intensity.

-it is a phrase used to describe a combination of pitch, loudness, and duration that produces vowel prominence. Primary stress refers to the syllable that experiences the most noticeable stress. One can alter the pitch (often by raising it), make the syllable louder, or lengthen it to create a stressed syllable.

is the characteristic of a sound that allows us to classify its pitch on a scale from low to high.

The melodic pattern of an utterance as described in phonetics. It can convey a variety of emotive meanings, such as surprise, rage, or happiness, as well as perform grammatical duties. Variations in the voice's pitch are the main factor In intonation

pauses or breaks between syllables.

is a word or a word's component with meaning, cannot be broken down into more manageable meaningful pieces without losing its significance or leaving behind meaningless leftovers and appears repeatedly in several terms.

. _____are morpheme variants that can be phonologically or morphologically conditioned.

Those that can stand on their own as independent words-eg. (view) in review and (like) in unlike.

those that cannot stand on their own as independent words; they need to be attached to a free morpheme or a free form-e.g. (re-), and (un-) they are commonly called affix.

always attached to complete words

added to root morphemes to derive new words. e.g. loyalty loyalty dis+ comfort discomfort

the study of the way phrases, clauses and sentences are constructed.

has TWO components: a subject and a predicate (eg, the sun shines gathered ingfacmation)

has TWO components: a verbal element and a complement (eg. the house is beautiful, but the soup tasted a little bit sour)

Has components: two consists of a headword and modifier (eg, Spanish sardines, Phillippine flag)

Has two components joins two independent clauses that contains related ideas of equal value

a characteristic of a word that has more than one possible meaning

a characteristic of a sentence that has more than one meanins

Word or a phrase that has its meaning included within another word, the contained word is also known as the superordinate (eg, laptop contains the meaning of computer, therefore, laptop is a hyponym of the superordinate computer)

sense relation in words with the same phonetic form but different in meaning (e.g., bow 'to bend forward to show respect' or 'a weapon that shoots arrows")

linguistic expression that refers to another linguistic expression (e.g.. The earthquake killed hundreds of thousands of people in Halti. It was devastating.) It is used anaphorically to refer to the earthquake.

Characteristic of a word that has one meaning but can refer to various entities.

A relationship between sentences in which a first sentence will be true if other sentences are true; implication or deduction; and called paraphrase

Two or more expressions refer to just one person or thing.

Firstly, introduced the British philosopher, John L. Austin as he believed that an utterance can constitute an act. Communication or conversation may fulfill various functions such as to promise, give praise, congratulate, annoy, flatter, etc.

As the act of saying something which has literal meaning.

An act saying something in given context and interpretation.

illocutionary acts that undertake to represent situation, whether past, present, future or hypothetical, e.g., predicting, telling,

illocutionary acts designed to get the addressee to do something, e.g., requesting, commanding, ordering, pleading, inviting, daring, and challenging

illocutionary acts that commit the speaker to doing something e.g., promising, threatening, vowing, and offering.

illocutionary acts that express only the speaker's psychological state, e.g., congratulating, thanking, deploring, condoling. welcoming and apologizing

illocutionary acts that bring about the situation they refer to, e.g., blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding, passing sentence

Coulthard (1977:18-19) and Pratt (1977:81) define an act performed because of the locutionary and illocutionary acts causing a change in the mind of listener so that he becomes 'alarmed', 'convinced', 'deterred', etc. (Coulthard 1977:18-19; Pratt 1977:81).