DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into protein.

RNA is a copy of one strand of DNA.

RNA is a single-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. Each nucleotide contains a ribose sugar and one of four nitrogenous bases:A,C,G,U

DNA and RNA are nucleic acids made of nucleotides. DNA has deoxyribose sugar and uses T, while RNA has ribose sugar and uses U.DNA is double-stranded,RNA is single-stranded.

RNA can fold into complex structures due to base pairing, allowing it to perform various cellular functions.

RNA polymerase uses DNA as a template to synthesize RNA in the 5' to 3' direction.

code for protein

from basic structure of ribosome and catalyzes protein creation

center to protein creation as adapters between mRNA and amino acids

regulate gene expression

It starts by binding to DNA promoter,unwinds DNA, then creates RNA.process ends at terminator sequence on DNA

-35 and -10 Regions: The sequences TTGACA and TATAAT are highly conserved and crucial for RNA polymerase binding

genes can be transcribed in either direction.direction is indicated by arrows,which point from 5'end of DNA to 3'end of RNA transcript

Tryptophan Low: Repressor is inactive,RNA polymerase transcribes the gene,tryptophan is produced. Tryptophan High: Tryptophan binds to repressor,activating it.Active repressor binds to operator,blocking transcription,tryptophan production stops.

lactose metabolism

lactose present:repressor protein is inactivated and CAP protein is activated,allowing RNA polymerase to transcribe Lac operon genes Lactose absent:repressor protein is active and CAP protein is inactive,preventing RNA polymerase from transcribing Lac operon genes.

Eukaryotic transcription starts at TATA box,where transcription factors and RNA polymerase II assemble.After phosphorylation,RNA polymerase II makes RNA.

Transcription starts at a promoter where proteins bind. RNA polymerase II is recruited and activated to begin RNA synthesis.

Eukaryotic transcription starts at TATA box,where transcription factors and RNA polymerase II assemble.After chromatin remodeling and histone modifications,RNA polymerase II starts creating RNA.

Transcription starts at TATA box,where transcription factors assemble.RNA polymerase II,with help of Mediator complex,binds and starts transcribing DNA into RNA.

protein that binds to DNA to control the rate of transcription of DNA to mRNA

homeodomain zinc finger glucocorticoid receptor bZIP

(De novo synthesis) Production: Making more or less of the protein. (Ligand binding) : Activating or inactivating the protein with a molecule. (Phosphorylation) : Adding a phosphate group to change the protein's activity. (Heterodimer formation) Dimerization: Combining with another protein to form an active complex. (Dimer dissociation) : Separating from another protein to become inactive. (Subcellular localization) Localization: Moving the protein to the nucleus where it can act.

Eukaryotes transcribe DNA into RNA in nucleus,then process it before exporting it to cytoplasm for translation. Prokaryotes transcribe and translate DNA directly in cytoplasm without processing.

Eukaryotic mRNA is modified with a cap and tail,and introns are removed before translation. Prokaryotic mRNA is simple and directly translated.

is added to 5'end of mRNA to protect it and help with translation

is added to 3'end of mRNA to protect it and help with translation

Removes introns from pre-mRNA

Eukaryotes transcribe DNA into RNA in nucleus,then process it before exporting it to cytoplasm for translation

A cap is added to 5'end of eukaryotic mRNA to protect it and help with translation.This cap involves adding a modified guanine nucleotide and methyl groups.

poly-A tail is added to 3'end of eukaryotic mRNA to protect it and help with translation.This tail is a string of adenine nucleotides added after specific signal sequence.

RNA processing involves adding a cap to 5'end,removing introns,adding a poly-A tail to 3'end.These modifications protect mRNA and help with translation.

beta-globin and Factor VIII.

Exons are coding regions while introns are non-coding regions removed before protein production. Introns allow for alternative splicing and gene regulation.

RNA splicing removes introns and joins exons to form a continuous mRNA molecule.allows for alternative splicing and protein diversity.

process where a single gene can produce multiple protein variants by combining (exons) of gene in various ways.allows for greater protein diversity from limited number of genes.

Mutations in DNA can disrupt splicing process,leading to diseases like beta-thalassemia.These mutations can cause exons to be skipped, extended, or have extra exons inserted, resulting in abnormal proteins that affect hemoglobin production.

DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus

controls the movement of molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm

Processing: mRNA is modified (capped, tailed, spliced). Export Complex: Proteins bind to mRNA, forming a complex. NPC Transport: The complex is transported through the (NPC) into the cytoplasm. Cytoplasmic Fate: mRNA can be translated into protein or degraded by NMD.

NMD: Premature stop codons trigger degradation. General Turnover: mRNA is shortened and degraded. ARE-Mediated Decay: AU-rich elements in the 3' UTR promote degradation. Nonstop Decay: Lack of a stop codon leads to ribosome stalling and degradation.

miRNAs are small RNA molecules that regulate gene expression. They bind to target mRNAs, leading to their cleavage and degradation.

This process controls protein production in cells

is a set of three nucleotides in DNA or RNA that codes for a specific amino acid

3 nucleotide codons 4 nucleobase A, U, C, G 20 different amino acids 64 different possible combinations Some codons unused, redundant code; some amino acids multiple codons. Amino acids with the same nucleotides vary at the third position

The genetic code is read in (codons).

tRNA molecules are adaptors that link mRNA codons to their corresponding amino acids during protein creation .They have an anticodon that binds to the codon and an acceptor site for the amino acid.

recognize and bind both to the codon and to the amino acid

allows flexibility at third position of codon-anticodon interaction, enabling efficient translation with fewer tRNAs.

500 tRNA with 48 different anti codons