Developmental anatomy – the study of the structural changes of an individual from fertilization to adulthood, Macroscopic anatomy – the study of the structures of the body visible without the use of a microscope, Microscopic anatomy – the study of cells, tissues and organs visible under a microscope

It is one of the branches of physiology, It is the study of cells and their functions

The function of the excretory system is studied by a branch of physiology called renal physiology, Reproductive physiology studies the reproductive organs and the methods of reproduction, The function of the nervous system is studied by a branch of physiology called neurophysiology

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and water are typical examples for the level of structural organisation of the body where the main components are represented by molecules, The cell contains subcellular structures such as mitochondria and ribosomes, Atoms are chemical units of chemical elements (oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, sodium)

An organ consists of two or more types of tissues, The stomach consists of all four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous, The muscle system includes striated muscles, smooth muscles and the cardiac muscle, The urinary system consists of the kidneys, the bladder and the associated urinary tracts

Metabolism represents the sum of all chemical processes in the body, Metabolism is subdivided into two subcategories, catabolism and anabolism, Catabolism represents the decomposition of organic matter resulting in the production of the energy required by cell functioning

Movement – voluntary or involuntary – is the result of muscle fibre contraction, Conductivity – the property of cells to send stimuli – is a characteristic of nervous and muscle cells

All the processes that contribute to maintaining internal stability of the body within normal limits are called homeostasis, The constant maintaining of temperature and atmospheric pressure are necessary conditions to maintain homeostasis, All organ systems are involved in maintaining homeostasis

When the body is in anatomical position, it is in vertical position (orthostatism), with the upper limbs near the body and the palms facing forwards, In anatomical position, the body has two sides, an anterior one (ventral) and a posterior one (dorsal), The term „ventral” is the opposite of the term „dorsal” (when the body is viewed frontally)

In anatomic terminology, the abdomen (the inferior part of the abdominopelvic cavity) is considered to be located inferior to the thorax, The term “ipsilateral“ refers to structures situated on opposite sides of the body, The term “contralateral” refers to structures situated on the same side of the body

Right hand – right foot – ipsilateral, Left arm – right foot – contralateral, Foot – distal to thigh – distal to calf

The midsagittal plane is a vertical plane that divides the body in two halves, left and right, The planes transect the human body and provide reference points for its organs

The heart, the oesophagus, the trachea and the primary bronchi are located in the mediastinum, The abdominopelvic cavity is called the peritoneal cavity and contains the internal abdominal and pelvic organs, The stomach is located in the abdominal subdivision of the abdominopelvic cavity

Organs such as the lungs, the heart, the thymus, the oesophagus are situated at the thoracic level, The terms „quadrants” (upper – left and right, and lower – left and right) are commonly used in clinical practice, The intersection of two imaginary lines, a vertical one and a horizontal one, in the centre of the abdominopelvic cavity delimits four quadrants

It is also called peritoneal cavity and contains the internal abdominal and pelvic organs, Is separated by the thoracic cavity by a dome-shaped large muscle – the diaphragm

The human body contains three serous membranes: the pleura, the pericardium and the peritoneum, Each of the three serous membranes has a parietal and a visceral sheet, The parietal sheet of the peritoneum lines the abdominal and the pelvic cavities, The space between the peritoneal sheets is called peritoneal cavity, the space between pericardial sheets is called pericardial cavity

They are devoid of nucleus, Bacteria are prokaryotic cells, They do not divide by mitosis

Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and cell organelles and divide by mitosis, All cells, including human ones, have two basic components: cytoplasm and plasma membrane, Bacteria belong to prokaryotic cells, while animal and human cells are eukaryotic

It mainly consists of proteins and phospholipids, The lipids in the plasma membrane are arranged in two layers (bilayer structure), The proteins in the membrane carry out various functions (enzymatic, transmembrane transport)

Polarised, which contains phosphorus, Unpolarised, consisting of fatty acid chains, Hydrophobic, consisting of fatty acid chains

Transmembrane proteins may act as transporters of certain organic molecules, Can be classified into transmembrane and peripheral, Transmembrane proteins may serve as channels for membrane transport

Oxygen molecules pass from pulmonary alveolae to red blood cells by osmosis, If one introduces red blood cells into a hypertonic solution, they will undergo the process of hemolysis, Active transport is achieved in the sense of the concentration gradient

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a high-concentration area to a low-concentration area (in the sense of the gradient concentration), Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules through a semipermeable membrane, Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a low-concentration area of the solute to high-concentration area of the solute

The solute is a chemical substance dissolved in a fluid called solvent, A solution that has a higher salt concentration than the cytoplasm is called hypertonic solution, A solution that has a higher sodium chloride concentration than the cytoplasm is called a hypertonic solution

It allows the passing of water from a low-concentration-solute area to a high-concentration-solute area, It allows just certain molecules to pass ( g., O2, water, CO2), It does not facilitate the passage of large molecules to or from the cell

Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, exocytosis, Osmosis – water diffusion, for example, water reabsorption in the renal tubules, Active transport – for example, reabsorption of salts in the renal tubules

Phagocytosis represents the transportation of solid material by means of endocytosis, The release of neurotransmitters from the neuron presynaptic vesicles is achieved by exocytosis, Oxygen permeation of the erythrocyte membrane is achieved by diffusion

It is the place where certain cellular metabolic processes take place, It contains specialised structures called organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc), Several cellular functions are carried out in the cytoplasmic organelles

A functional structure located in the cytoplasm, playing a role in Ca2+ depositing, A complex of membranes which extend into the cytoplasm, Of two types, smooth (site of lipid and membrane synthesis) and rough (with attached ribosomes)

Is involved in protein synthesis (achieved by amino acid assembling in the attached ribosomes), Is an organelle consisting in a complex of membranes, which extend into the cytoplasm and have ribosomes attached in some of their areas

They contain enzymes which play a role in the cell digestion processes, They contain enzymes which degrade the nutrient particles inside a cell and offers the final products to the cell, They are vesicles which derive from the sacs of Golgi apparatus and contain enzymes for intracellular digestion

Kinetochore, chromosome, Nucleolus, chromatin

These organelles are the site of carbohydrate and lipid breakdown resulting in energy production, Inside the mitochondria, cellular respiration is complete when oxygen combines with hydrogen and electrons and form water, They are cellular organelles involved in the cell’s energy processes

Intermediate filaments and microfilaments, Fibres, filaments and combined molecules, Microtubules and microfilaments

The flagellum is a part of the spermatozoa ensuring its movement, The cilia are shorter structures than the flagella, The cilia are present in the respiratory tract cells where they undulate synchronously

The nucleus delimited by the membrane is present in eukaryote cells, The nucleus is present in all the cells of the human body, with the exception of red blood cells (erythrocytes), The dense mass of the nucleus containing RNA (ribonucleic acid) is called nucleolus, During the interphase period, when chromosomes cannot be distinguished from one another, the dispersed DNA mass and its associated proteins from the cell nucleus are called chromatin

The shape and size of the nucleus differs from a cell type to another, It is surrounded by a double membrane called nuclear membrane, Includes nucleoli, which contain ribonucleic acid (RNA)

As it consists of two layers of phospholipids, it contains twice the quantity of phospholipids compared to the cellular membrane, It is a double porous membrane, It controls the passage of substances between nucleus and cytoplasm

It consists of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and proteins, The non-spiral structure of chromosomes is called chromatin, The dispersed DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and histone mass forms chromatin

In the gastrointestinal tract, cells divide often, The cell cycle has two important phases: the interphase and mitosis, The cell cycle is a repeating series of events including cellular growth and reproduction, The contents of the nucleus is directly involved in cell reproduction

The cell does not divide, but DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) replication takes place, Specific cell activity take place ( g., secretion of substances in glandular cells), Cell chromosomes are present as non-spiral chromatin

It is one of the two phases of a cell cycle, together with the interphase, It is the phase of the cell cycle in which the cell’s nuclear DNA is divided between the two daughter cells

Phase S – interphase – DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) replication, Phase G1 – protein synthesis – non-spiral chromatin, Phase G1 – enzyme synthesis – non-spiral chromatin

Contain the genetic information required for protein synthesis, Contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) but do not contain RNA (ribonucleic acid), Store genetic information

Cytokinesis – takes place after the telophase, Mitosis and cytokinesis – replacement of old and deteriorated cells by forming new cells, Cellular cleavage – strangulation of the cytoplasm by the cell membrane resulting in the formation of daughter cells

They are organic compounds, used as structural material in the cells of the body, They are present in the structure of microtubules and microfilaments, They are specialised molecules which are exported by cells in order to be used in various extracellular activities

They represent linear units where DNA is organized inside the cell nucleus, They contain functional segments called genes, Each chromosome consists of millions of units called nucleosomes, Chromosome condensation results from the supra-spiralling of nucleosomes

With a few exceptions, the name of the enzymes ends in the suffix „-ase”, At high temperatures, enzyme reactions are much faster, The heat excess may trigger changes in an enzyme’s protein structure and its alteration

When it eliminates its terminal phosphate group, it releases an energy equivalent to 7.3 kcal/mol, It serves as an energy source during muscle contraction, In the muscle fibre, it must be constantly regenerated from ADP and phosphate groups

Each chemical reaction of the body involves an energy exchange, The energy released during catabolic exergonic reactions is stored in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules, Triggering a chemical reaction requires an energy intake called activation

It coordinates complex processes which take place inside the body , It responds to stimuli coming from the internal or external environment, It facilitates the senses (visual, auditory, taste, tactile, olfactory)

Organ systems would function chaotically, The body’s demands couldn’t be met, Cognitive processes and emotions would cease

It consists of the encephalon (located in the cranial cavity) and the spinal cord (located in the spinal canal), It is the body’s central control centre, Certain CNS components receive the incoming information and release the appropriate reactions

It consists mainly of the axons and dendrites of sensory and motor neurons, Neuronal cellular bodies are located in the central nervous system or close to it (lymph nodes), The PNS informs the CNS about the stimuli coming from the external environment

The 21 pairs of cranial nerves which include 3 pairs of sensory nerves (I, II, VIII), The 31 pairs of spinal nerves which apparently originate in the spinal cord, The 12 pairs of cranial nerves which include 5 pairs of motor nerves (III, IV, VI, XI, XII)

It regulates the activity of involuntary muscles and of glands (endocrine and exocrine), It contains two types of motor nerves: sympathetic and parasympathetic, Parasympathetic nerves ensure the body’s relaxation capacity

They are represented by two types of cells: neurons and glial cells, Glial cells are supporting cells, Neurons receive and transmit biochemical signals

Schwann cells – form the myelin sheath enveloping the neurons located outside the central nervous system, Astrocytes help isolate the damaged nervous tissue, Oligodendrocytes – form myelin sheaths enveloping the projections of the central nervous system neurons

Multipolar, when they have multiple dendrites and a single axon, Pseudounipolar, when they have a single projection which divides to form a dendrite and an axon, Bipolar, when they nave a single axon and a single dendrite

Afferent neurons, efferent neurons and association neurons, Sensory neurons, motor neurons and interneurons, Neurons which send information from receptors to the central nervous system, neurons which send messages from the central nervous system to the muscles, heart and lymph nodes, and interneurons also called association neurons

The cell body represents a small part of the cell’s total size, The surface of dendrites is covered with thousands of spines which help dendrites connect to other neurons, The neuron’s cell body contains the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, Nissl bodies

Axons originating in the lower part of the spinal cord and extend to the foot may reach 1.2 meters, At their distal end, axons have axon terminals with swollen ends called synaptic boutons, Dendrites are specialised in receiving nerve impulses and relaying them to the cell body

It is a stratified membrane produced by two types of cells – oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, Myelin is a major component of the oligodendrocyte membrane and of Schwann cells, Myelin isolates electrochemical reactions which transmit nervous impulses along axons

The nerve consists of several axon and/or dendrite bundles, In the structure of a nerve, each nerve bundle is surrounded by a sheath called perinerve, Lymph nodes are structures which contain the cell bodies of neurons

Reception means getting information from the surrounding environment, The activity of relaying information refers to information being transmitted to the central nervous system by sensory neurons, Integration is subsequent to transmission and refers to the activity during which the proper response is being determined

The role of the receptor is to detect internal or external alterations, Components are represented in the following order by receptors, sensory neurons, interneurons, motor neurons, effectors (muscle or lymph node), The role of the effector is to respond to the stimulus received from the motor neuron and to produce a reflex action

It can be automatic and unconscious without involving the encephalon or a mental activity, A reflex occurs when a sensory neuron receives a stimulus, A typical example of a reflex act is the patellar reflex

It is polarised because the internal and external surface of its membrane have opposite electrical charges, Its cytoplasm has a negative electric charge, The external surface of its membrane has a positive electric charge

It originates in an electrochemical event triggered by the altered ion distribution in the nerve cell, It is also called action potential, When it is generated, a stimulus (electric, mechanical, chemical) changes the resting potential by opening sodium channels and allowing the passage of sodium ions into the nerve cell

A neuron and an effector (muscle), A neuron and a lymph node, Two neurons (a presynaptic one and a postsynaptic one)

Motor plate, Neuromuscular synapse, Neuromuscular junction

They are chemical substances belonging to different classes of compounds (catecholamines, amino acids etc.), They are released from the terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron axon and cross the synaptic gap, Their connection to the postsynaptic membrane receptors generates an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron

The neurons which innervate skeletal muscles at the point of the neuromuscular junction, Certain neurons from the vegetative component of the peripheral nervous system, Some of the neurons in the encephalon

It is a neurotransmitter present both in the encephalon and in the spinal cord, It can be involved in certain mental functions or in the circadian rhythm

Gamma aminobutyric acid – in the encephalon, Certain neurotransmitters which keep sodium channels closed, Glycine – mainly in the spinal cord

Adrenaline and noradrenaline, Noradrenaline and dopamine

Excite the postsynaptic neuron, Induce postsynaptic-neuron-membrane depolarisation, Open sodium channels, allowing sodium ions to penetrate the cell

Inhibit the occurrence of nervous impulses in the postsynaptic neuron, Keep sodium channels closed

It lies in the bony canal formed by the vertebrae, It originates in the large opening (foramen magnum) of the occipital bone, extending downwards through the bony canal formed by the vertebrae

The nervous tissue enveloped by three meningeal layers, The central canal also called ependymar canal, A grey matter on the inside consisting of horns, A white mater on the outside consisting of myelinated nerve fibres

The dura mater, fibrous, resistant connective tissue, The arachnoid, network-like thin layer, The pia mater, richly-vascularised very thin layer

Cannot be found outside the dura mater, Whenever a disorder of the nervous system is suspected, a sample can be collected by spinal tap (lumbar puncture) for lab analysis, Its function is to ensure the necessary nutrients required by the nerve cells of the central nervous system

Their apparent origin is the base of the encephalon (cranial nerves) and the spinal cord (spinal nerves), Spinal nerves and some of the cranial nerves contain both sensory fibres and motor fibres, Some cranial nerves contain fibres belonging to the vegetative nervous system (the vagus nerve), The spinal nerves innervate several structures such as the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, blood vessels, mucosae, sweat glands (with the exception of the head and the neck)

The bulb hosts the centres which regulate cardiac activity and blood pressure, The bridge functions as a relay between the two cerebellar hemispheres, The mesencephalon controls the reflex movements of the head and trunk as response to auditory stimuli

They belong to the peripheral nervous system, together with the spinal nerves, They are designated by numbers (I – XII) and a different name for each, Their apparent origin is described – the place where the nerve becomes visible

Nerves I, II and VII are sensory nerves, nerves III, IV, VI, VII and XI are motor nerves, Nerves I, II and VII are mixed nerves

They represent most of the encephalon and control complex mental functions, The insular lobe or insula is a deep area of the cerebral hemispheres, Each hemisphere contains the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobe, They represent the centre of reasoning and memory and greatly determine the intelligence of an individual

They are joined by a bridge called corpus callosum, made of nerve fibres, The frontal lobe lies anterior to each cerebral hemisphere, Their surface is crossed by several grooves and gyri

They contain neurons which interpret the nervous impulses coming from sense organs, They contain neurons which initiate voluntary responses to stimuli, Certain areas of the parietal lobes are responsible for understanding speech and expressing ideas

They are cavities containing a fluid which serves as nutrient for nerve cells, They contain cerebrospinal fluid, which is also located in the ependymal canal of the spinal cord, Two of them (the lateral ventricles) lie inside the cerebral hemispheres

The frontal lobe is anterior to the central sulcus, The parietal lobe is posterior to the frontal lobe and separated from it by the central sulcus, Below the frontal lobe and separated from it by the lateral sulcus, lies the temporal lobe, Posterior to each hemisphere, lies the occipital lobe

The basal nuclei – control muscle tone, The limbic system – centres if pleasure and of punishment, The reticular formation (bulb, pons and mesencephalon) – stimulation of cognitive processes

They are responsible for sensations, feelings and emotions, The area responsible for the sense of smell is located deep inside the cerebral hemispheres, The areas for the sense of hearing are located in the temporal lobe, which is also responsible for the auditory and visual memory

It is situated in the frontal lobe, Contains large pyramidal neurons which generate impulses transmitted along the corticospinal tract, The frontal lobe, in Broca’s area, is responsible for the motor activity connected to speech and language processing, Due to the crossing over of the corticospinal tracts, the impulses received from the left hemisphere control the motor activity of the body’s right side

It acts involuntarily without conscious control, It coordinates the homeostatic functions of certain viscera, such as the heart, Parasympathetic nerves relax the body after a situation of stress or danger

Activate the body for fight or flight („fight or flight” reaction), Its neurotransmitter is represented by noradrenalin released from postganglionic fibres, Prepares the body for emergency situations

Induces the relaxation of the body after a situation of stress or danger, Contains cholinergic postganglionic fibres (which use acetylcholine as neurotransmitter), Its preganglionic neurons are located at cranio-sacral level (in the cerebral trunk, respectively in the sacral spinal cord)

Acceleration of the heart rate, Relaxation of the bronchi, Decreased stimulation of salivation

Slowing down of the heart rate and dilatation of the arteries, Constriction of the pupil, Stimulation of the digestion, Contraction of the urinary bladder

They contain more than 10 billion neurons, They represent the largest part of the encephalon, Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes