It is the study of the Earth, including geological agents, processes, and the identification of rocks and minerals.

It focuses on adapting knowledge to local conditions, such as those in the Philippines, and understanding the structural relationships of Earth's formations and stratification in engineering contexts.

Etymology of Geology:

Is recognized as the father of modern geology.

Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering:

Play a key role in systematically exploring and investigating new sites to ensure safe and effective construction.

Stages of Systematic Site Exploration:

Some Main Branches Geology:

The Earth is an ___, meaning it is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator.

It includes the study of natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, and flooding.

Focuses on the ways in which geological processes and materials affect the environment and human activities.

It is the study of the Earth's water cycle and the movement and distribution of water on the surface and underground.

It is the study of layers of rock and sediment and the ways in which they are formed and preserved.

It is the study of fossils and the history of life on Earth.

Focuses on the study of minerals, including their chemical and physical properties, their occurrence and distribution, and their uses.

It includes the study of plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes, and other geological phenomena.

Focuses on the physical properties and processes that shape the Earth's surface and interior.

The feature farthest from Earth's center is. in Ecuador.

Local deviations: • Highest point: ___ • Deepest point: ___

Earth Layers:

The earth's outermost layer, comparable to the skin of an apple.

Accounts for only 1% of Earth's volume.

It is the thinnest layer.

Composed mostly of basalt (denser).

Composed mostly of granite (less dense).

Rocky surface (~solid crust).

Water bodies (e.g., oceans, lakes, rivers).

All forms of life on Earth.

Located below the crust and makes up 84% of Earth's volume, making it the largest layer.

Two sections of Mantle:

Is liquid. Composed primarily of iron and nickel, making it very dense.

A hot, dense ball of mostly iron.

Behaves like a plasma acting as a solid.

Main Parts of the Earth:

Extends up to 150 km above Earth's surface.

Extends from the surface to Earth's core.

Divisions of Earth's Atmosphere:

Contains weather systems.

Absorbs harmful UV radiation.

Stable layer ideal for jet travel.

Coldest layer of the atmosphere.

Contains ionized gases and auroras.

Parts of Solid Earth:

Includes all living organisms and their products, both on land and in the sea.

Composed of fresh and saltwater, including ice and snow.

Earth's Internal Structure:

Is the theory that continents shift position on Earth's surface over time.

A German meteorologist and astronomer who theorized that the continents once formed a single landmass called PANGAEA, which later split apart.

Pangaea's two parts:

Northern section.

Southern section.

Evidence Supporting Continental Drift:

The theory explains the movement of Earth's lithospheric plates and how this relates to the Earth's surface processes, including earthquakes and volcanoes.

Layers Involved in Earth's Outer Layer:

Earth's rigid, brittle outer layer (crust + upper mantle). Fractures to create earthquakes.

Hotter, upper mantle layer that flows like putty.

Types of Plate Boundaries:

Plates move apart, and new crust forms from rising magma.

Plates collide; one subducts beneath the other.

Plates slide horizontally past each other.

Deepest earthquakes are caused by one plate being forced below another.

Are natural activities that shape and modify the Earth's surface. These processes can be: • __ - breaking down landscapes. • __ - building new landforms.

Divisions of Geological Processes:

Occur on or near the Earth's surface and are driven by external forces like wind, water, gravity, and organisms.

Occur within or beneath the Earth's surface, driven by heat and energy from the Earth's mantle.

Examples of Exogenous Processes:

Types of Weathering:

Examples of Endogenous Processes:

The breakdown of rocks and minerals near or on the Earth’s surface.

Rocks break into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition.

Water enters cracks, freezes, and expands, breaking the rock.

Repeated heating and cooling cause rocks to crack.

Rocks undergo chemical changes due to water and reactions like oxidation or carbonation.

Rusting of ironrich rocks.

Reaction of carbon dioxide in rainwater with rocks like limestone, forming caves.

Caused by living organisms like plants and microbes.

The movement of soil, rock, and other materials by wind, water, ice, or gravity.

The settling or laying down of eroded materials in new locations.

The eruption of molten rock (magma) from the Earth's interior.

Movement of Earth’s crustal plates due to mantle convection.

Sudden release of energy along faults or tectonic plate boundaries, causing ground shaking.

Uplift and collision of tectonic plates form mountain ranges.

Movement of glaciers reshaping landscapes.

The point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates.

The point on the Earth's surface directly above the hypocenter.

A measure of the energy released at the earthquake’s source, represented by __.

Is used to determine the strength of an earthquake.

A measure of the earthquake's effects on people, buildings, and the Earth's surface, represented by __.